Bibliography

Paraeducators and Collaboration

Blalock G. (1991). Paraprofessionals: Critical team members in our special education programs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 26(4), 200-214. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ427037&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ427037

The article reviews the use of paraprofessionals in special education programs and offers specific guidance on hiring (including preemployment orientation, vocational assessment, and interviewing); training and supervision (including roles and responsibilities, the importance of regular cooperative planning, and enhancing job status); and resources for training. (DB)

Cremin, H., Thomas, G., & Vincett, K. (2005). Working with teaching assistants: Three models evaluated. Research Papers in Education, 20(4), 413-432. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rred/2005/00000020/00000004/art00001

Questions about how best to deploy teaching assistants (TAs) are particularly opposite given the greatly increasing numbers of TAs in British schools and given findings about the difficulty effecting adult teamwork in classrooms. In six classrooms, three models of team organization and planning for the work of teaching assistants – “room management”, “zoning” and “reflective teamwork” – were evaluated using a repeated measures design for their effects on children’s engagement. Detailed interview feedback was also gained from participating teachers and assistants about the perceived benefits of each model and possible adaptations to the models for future classroom use. All three models were found to effect significant improvements in engagement in all of the classrooms, and each was evaluated positively by participants, with useful commentary concerning adaptation.

Demchak M. A. & Morgan, C.R. (1998). Effective collaboration between professionals and paraprofessionals. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 17 (1), 10-15. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ578169&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ578169

This article provides information about the roles of team members. It provides a table that differentiates between the duties and responsibilities of general education teachers, special education teachers and paraeducators who work together in teams to serve the needs of children with disabilities.

Daniels V.I. & McBride, A. (2001). Paraeducators as critical team members: Redefining roles and responsibilities. NASSP Bulletin (85) 623, 66-74. http://bul.sagepub.com/content/85/623/66.full.pdf

This article is a review of literature the literature on paraeducators as team members and teacher-paraeducator collaboration. It is written from the perspective of what principals need to know about paraeducators as team members.

Hauge, J.M. & Babkie, A.M. (2006). Develop collaborative special educator-paraprofessional teams: One paraeducator’s view. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42 (1), 51-53. http://www.k8accesscenter.org/training_resources/documents/Tchr-ParaCollaboration.pdf

Special educators and the paraprofessionals with whom they work need to establish and maintain a collaborative relationship to better serve the children assigned to them. In this article, one paraprofessional recommends what special educators can do to make the most of these working relationships. The ideas reflect her experience working as a one-on-one and a general inclusion para in resource and inclusive settings.

Logan A. (2001). Collaboration between teachers and special needs assistants in mainstream primary schools. REACH Journal of Special Needs Education in Ireland, 15(1), 33-42. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/logan.html

The author describes a trend that has emerged in Ireland following the enactment of their 1998 Education Act, namely an increase in the number of resource teachers and the number of special needs assistants. She reports that, “ in March 2001, the Minister for Education and Science announced that over the previous two years the number of resource teachers has risen from less than 300 to 750 and that the number of special needs assistants had increased from 299 to 1750” (p. 33). Due to the lack of research data in Ireland about these issues she discusses research from Britain. The remainder of the article address: (1) changing roles (from care and housekeeping to instruction); (2) supporting the pupil, teacher and school; (3) working collaboratively; (4) communication; (5) joint planning and evaluation, (6) clarity in role definition, (7) management implications, and (8) joint training.

McGrath, M.Z., Johns, B.H., & Mathur, S.R. (2010). Empowered or overpowered? Strategies for working effectively with paraprofessionals. Beyond Behavior, 19(2), 2-6. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ885717&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ885717

Across the nation, special educators are the most thinly stretched professional educators, and they do need carefully designed support from paraprofessionals. Giangreco and Broer (2009) reported that assigning paraprofessionals either to classrooms or to individual children with disabilities has become a growing model of providing services to students with disabilities. Although the paraprofessional is defined as an individual who assists with the delivery of services and acts under the direction of licensed staff, interestingly, research indicates that paraprofessionals report that they have more responsibility than is appropriate and that they do not receive adequate guidance. When faced with challenges from paraprofessionals in communication, student and parent relationships, and program operation, special educators may be at a loss as to what to say or do. In this article, the authors present 10 questions that teachers working with paraprofessionals may ask. Since capable teachers experience challenges of various kinds when working with various paraprofessionals, the authors offer supportive suggestions for dealing with any of the 10 “how” and “what” questions. They also present a chart that summarizes the 10 challenges special education teachers face in working with paraprofessionals and possible solutions to those challenges.

Morgan J., & Ashbaker, B.Y. (2001). 20 ways to work more effectively with your paraeducator. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36(4), 230-231. http://www.ldonline.org/article/Work_More_Effectively_with_Your_Paraeducator

Miramontes O. B., (1990). Organizing for effective paraprofessional services in special education: A multilingual / multiethnic instructional service team model. Remedial and Special Education, 12(1), 29-36. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ425646&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ425646

The author recommends joint training for MMIS team members specifically on issues of 2nd language acquisition and its affect on learning, how to interpret and administer tests that are written in one language and translated to another, and information on how to strengthen school-community relations. The article emphasizes team collaboration to solve many problems associated with translators and second language programming for students.

Palma G. M. (1994). Toward a positive and effective teacher and paraprofessional relationship. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 13(4), 46-48. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ495406&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ495406

Discusses importance of paraprofessionals in rural special education. Suggests that positive teacher-paraprofessional relationships are obtained through valuing each other’s respective roles; giving credit where due; involving paraprofessionals in planning and decision making; showing paraprofessionals the why as well as the how of lessons; providing instructions using we and us, instead of you; providing verbal and nonverbal feedback.

Paraeducator Dissertations

Amos, B. A. (2008). Exploring communication between paraprofessional and teacher. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69 (05A), 145. (UMI No. AAI3307984)

Aragon L. (2003). Factors to consider when selecting paraprofessionals for
participation in a teacher preparation program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Denver.

Archibald, D. (2008). The roles and responsibilities of the Georgia special education paraprofessionals and the impact of the NCLB mandates: An assessment by Georgia administrators, special education teachers, and special education paraprofessionals. Doctoral Dissertation, Georgia Southern University.

Bingham, M. A. (2005). The effect of paraeducator training on the promotion of augmentative communication by students with severe communication disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66 (01A), 86. (UMI No. AAI3162078)

Bourke, Patricia E. (2008) The experiences of teacher aides who support students with disabilities and learning difficulties : A phenomenological study. [Queensland University of Technology, Doctoral Thesis]

Bryan, R. R. (2009). The role of the paraeducator in the general physical education environment. Doctoral Dissertation, Oregon State University.

Causton-Theoharis J. (2003). Increasing Interactions between students with severe disabilities and their peers via paraprofessional training. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Chopra R.V. (2002). Parent-paraeducator collaboration in inclusion: reality and issues. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Denver.

Conti, A. M. (2004). A qualitative inquiry into the responsibilities and supports of paraeducators in special education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (12A), 256. (UMI No. AAI3159330)

D’Aquanni M. M. (1997). The role of paraprofessionals in quality inclusive educational programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University.

Devlin, P. A. (2002). The effect of continuous improvement training for teacher-paraprofessional teams on interaction and engagement of special education students in general education classrooms. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63 (09A), 125. (UMI No. AAI3065543)

Dover W. F. (2001). Instructional management of paraeducators in inclusive classrooms: The perspectives of the teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University.

Doyle M. B. (1995). A qualitative inquiry into the roles and responsibilities of paraeducators who support students with sever disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota.

Duran, L. K. (2008). An analysis of verbal interactions during dialogic reading with Spanish-speaking children enrolled in a Head Start home visiting program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69 (01A), 112. (UMI No. AAI3295684)

Genzuk S. M. (1995). Integration factors affecting commitment to educational and occupational goals for latino paraeducators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California.

Ghere, G. S. (2003). Employing, directing, and supporting paraprofessionals in inclusive education programs for students with disabilities: A multi-site case study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64 (01A), 254. (UMI No. AAI3078016)

Hawkins, S. R. (2004). A study of the perceptions of special education teachers and paraeducators regarding the training of paraeducators (Washington, D.C.). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (08A), 82. (UMI No. AAI3142355)

Keane, T. E. (2007). The relationship between paraprofessional job satisfaction and student academic and co-curricular success for secondary school students in special education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (04A), 122. (UMI No. AAI3259837)

Klein, E.F. (2006). Training Paraprofessionals to Facilitate Social Interactions Between Children with Autism and their Typically Developing Peers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (04A), 1409. (UMI AAI3263766)

Lanoux, F. (2007). Paraprofessionals: Instructional support in the elementary schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (11A), 261. (UMI No. AAI3289801)

Lavadenz M. C. (1994). Factors related to the teaching aspirations of chicano/latino paraprofessionals. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California.

Milner C. A. (1998). Paraprofessionals in inclusive classrooms: Working without a net. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of North Dakota.

Mueller P. H. (1997). A study of the roles, training needs, and support needs of Vermont’s paraeducators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Vermont.

Parvey, M. C. (2008). Teacher assistants in classrooms and schools: Roles, collaboration, and responsibilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69 (02A), 178. (UMI No. AAI3303098)

Perez, J. C. (1998) Investigating the effects of a paraprofessional teaching sharing behaviors to young children with special needs in an inclusive kindergarten classroom. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (08A), 2928. (University Microfilms No. AAG99-00965)

Plagge, B. A. (1999). Dimensions of roles, responsibilities, training background and needs, policies, and procedures for paraeducators dealing with students with special needs. Dissertation Abstract International, 60, no. 12A

Prigge D. J. (1996). Supervising the special education paraprofessional in inclusionary settings. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington.

Reamer R. B. (1995). The effects of video self-modeling and self-assessment training on the delivery of instructional strategies provided by paraeducators working with children with developmental delays. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston.

Riggs C. G. (1996). Dimensions of the paraeducator experience: Facilitating the inclusion of children with identified special education needs in general education classes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Lesley College.

Robinson, S. E. (2007) Training Paraprofessionals of Students with Autism to Implement Pivotal Response Treatment Using a Video Feedback Training Package. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (10A), 4255. (UMI No. AAI3283763)

Rosness, L. D. (1998) Characteristics of successful paraeducator-to-teacher programs (Minority Teachers, Teacher Diversity). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (08A), 2934. (University Microfilms No. AAG99-00782)

Rutherford, G. (2008). Different ways of knowing? Understanding disabled students’ and teacher aides’ school experiences within a context of relational social justice. Doctoral dissertation. University of Otago, Dunedin, NZ.

Sandoval-Lucero E.M. (2004) The role of self-efficacy in paraeducators’ career decisions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Denver.

Schonewise, E. A. (2001). The current training practices and perceived training needs of paraprofessionals in special education programs in Nebraska. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62 (05A), 228. (UMI No. AAI3015853)

Simpson, L. A. (2008). Social facilitation as a clinical intervention for children with nonverbal learning disability and Asperger’s Disorder: A theory review. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (12B), 253. (UMI No. AAI3294297)

Skulina, J. A. (2003). Paraprofessionals in general education environments: A comparison of parent perceptions and classroom observations. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64 (02A), 163. (UMI No. AAI3079390)

Slider, N. J. (2004). Cost effective and sequential methods for teaching educational paraprofessionals to implement behavior management strategies in preschool classrooms. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (10A), 105. (UMI No. AAI3151852)

Smith, H. (2007). Why do they go? Reasons for the attrition of paraeducators working with high school students having severe disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (10A), 158. (UMI No. AAI3283778)

Smith S. D. (2000). From paraprofessional to credentialed teacher: Motivational factors that influence career pathways in special education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco.

Stallings C.F. (2000). The identification of paraprofessional training needs within the context of inclusive education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. North Carolina State University.

Sullivan J. P. (1995) The relationship between the actual role and ideal role of paraprofessionals in secondary schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco

Sullivan, K. O. (1998) Meeting the challenge of paraprofessional training: An application of the competence model. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (02B), 0889. (University Microfilms No. AAG98-24803)

Tindall, D. W. S. (2005). The effects of three knowledge interventions on novice volunteer tutors’ teaching performance with children with developmental disabilities in a motor development lab setting. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66 (05A), 101. (UMI No. AAI3175999)

Torres R. L. (1998) Meeting the demands for quality teachers: A case study of bilingual paraprofessional-to-bilingual-teacher training program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Colorado at Boulder.

Wallace T. L. (1997). The role of paraprofessionals in effective transition programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Minnesota.

Walters-Remaly, M. A. (2003). A study of essential characteristics of paraeducators who work with students with severe/profound cognitive and/or multiple disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64 (03A), 346. (UMI No. AAI3085107)

Ward, D. L. (2000). An investigation of the role of paraeducators with students with mild disabilities. Dissertation Abstract International, 61, no. 09A

Werts M. G. (1998) Child academic engagement related to proximity of paraprofessionals. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Pittsburgh.

Wiese, B. J. (2004). Knowledge and skills for the utilization and supervision of paraeducators across Iowa: Trends in special education teacher preparation and inservice needs. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (07A), 153. (UMI No. AAI3139406)

Paraeducators in Early Intervention/Early Childhood Education

Appl, D. (2006). First-year early childhood special education teachers and their assistants: “Teaching along with her” Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(6), 34-40.

Bolton, J., & Mayer, M. D. (2008). Promoting the generalization of paraprofessional discrete trial teaching skills. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 23 (2), 103-111. http://foa.sagepub.com/content/23/2/103.full.pdf

This study investigated the effectiveness of a brief staff training procedure aimed at promoting the generalization of accurate implementation of discrete trial instruction from the training environment to the teaching environment. Three bachelor’s-level paraprofessionals received classroom training using a training package that included didactic instruction, modeling, general case instruction, and practice with specific performance feedback. Participants were required to meet performance criteria of 98% accuracy or better to exit training. After successfully completing the training program, participants were followed into the treatment environment and shown to maintain a high level of treatment integrity in implementing varied discrete trial programs with children in early intervention and school-age services for periods of up to 23 weeks.

Hughes, M. T., Valle-Riestra, D. M. (2008). Responsibilities, preparedness, and job satisfaction of paraprofessionals working with young children with disabilities. International Journal of Early Years Education, 16(2), 163-173. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a794114647~db=all

To support teachers with their classroom responsibilities, schools have increasingly turned to paraprofessionals for assistance, with the largest numbers of paraprofessionals employed in the field of special education. Owing to this important role that paraprofessionals now perform in the education of children with disabilities in the USA, we set out to investigate the responsibilities that paraprofessionals working with young children with disabilities had. We were also interested in identifying how paraprofessionals and the teachers with whom they work alongside perceived the paraprofessionals’ level of preparedness for their roles and their job satisfaction. Fifty-two paraprofessionals and 59 teachers of young children with disabilities participated in the study. Overall, both paraprofessionals and teachers indicated that paraprofessionals were generally well prepared for activities they frequently engaged in and both viewed themselves as collaborative members of an educational team.

Killoran, J., Templeman, T. P., Peters, J., & Udell, T. (2001). Identifying paraprofessional competencies for early intervention and early childhood special education. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(1), 68-73. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ632613&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ632613

This article identifies competencies needed by paraprofessionals working in early childhood special education including ways to document various mastery levels. It describes use of the competencies in Oregon’s early childhood special education personnel development program. It explains the process used to identify needed competencies and also reports on a survey of 64 paraprofessionals of their perceived training needs. (Contains references.) (DB)

Lane, K.L., Fletcher, T., Carter, E., Dejud, & Delorenzo, J. (2007). Paraprofessional-led phonological awareness training with youngsters at-risk for reading and behavioral concerns. Remedial and Special Education, 28 (5), 266-276.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ775536&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ775536

This study examined the efficacy of a paraprofessional-led supplemental early intervention for first-grade students with poor early literacy skills and behavioral concerns. The goal was to determine if (a) the relatively brief intervention was effective in improving phonological skills, and (b) improvements in academic skills would be accompanied by behavioral and social improvements. The results indicated that the students in the treatment condition experienced significant, lasting increases in phonological awareness and moderate improvement in word attack skills. However, significant collateral effects on social and behavioral performance were not observed. Limitations and directions for future investigation are offered.

Paris, R., & Bronson, M., (2006). A home-based intervention for immigrant and refugee trauma survivors: Paraprofessionals working with high-risk mothers and infants. Zero to Three, 27(2), 37-45.

Rosenberg, S. A., Robinson, C., & Fryer, E. G. (2002). Evaluation of paraprofessional home visiting services for children with special needs and their families. Teacher Education and Special Education, 22(3), 158-168. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ655547&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ655547

This study evaluated the impact of supportive paraprofessional home visiting on mothers and their young children who had or were at risk for developmental disabilities and who were at risk for receiving inadequate parenting. Families were randomly assigned to intervention and comparison groups. Upon exit, mothers in the intervention group rated services as more helpful and demonstrated moderately better mental health than did mothers in the comparison group. Children in the intervention group were more likely to have received an Individualized Family Service Plan. The two groups did not differ in the quality of their home environments, service utilization, or child outcomes. The results of these findings are discussed in terms of the need for direct training of parents and the characteristics of families who can benefit most from the services that paraprofessionals provide.

Paraeducator Employment and Roles

Abbate-Vaughn, J. (2007). Paraprofessionals left behind? Urban paraprofessionals’ beliefs about their work in the midst of NCLB. Journal of Poverty, 11(4),k 143-164. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=jour~content=a904326651

Paraprofessionals are often overlooked but key participants in the optimal functioning of schools. In light of the pending changes and increasing demands regarding paraprofessional qualifications stipulated by the No Child Left Behind Act, this pilot study focuses on paraprofessionals’ beliefs about their work in a diverse urban setting. The participants cite their own experiences with motherhood and insiders’ understanding of diverse communities as the most compelling skills they bring to their jobs. Implications for policy-making that address the worth of “life experiences” and cultural diversity as an asset for those who work in urban, highly diverse school settings are offered.

Appl, D. (2006). First-year early childhood special education teachers and their assistants: “Teaching along with her.” Teaching Exceptional Children. 38, 34-40. http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Home&TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=7759

Allen, M., & Ashbaker, B. Y. (2004). Strengthening schools: Involving paraprofessionals in crisis prevention and intervention. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(3), 139-146. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ732486&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ732486

Two important questions arise when creating a school crisis plan: (a) Who should be trained as part of the crisis team? and (b) What type of training will be the most effective and practical? The authors suggest that paraprofessionals are a valuable resource to consider for assisting with crisis prevention and intervention. Practical suggestions are made for preparing paraprofessionals to assist in this role.

Ashbaker, B. Y., & Morgan J. (2006). Paraprofessionals in the classroom. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

Ashbaker B. & Morgan, J. (2000, January). Bilingual paraeducators: What we can learn from Rosa. NASSP Bulletin, 84(612), 53-56. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ604864&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ604864

Hiring increasing numbers of paraeducators can provide additional learning support and a linguistic/cultural link to the community. However, such personnel may have frenetic schedules, responsibilities divided among several schools, and inadequate supervision and communication links. Recommendations for principals, teachers, and bilingual coordinators are provided. (MLH)

Ashbaker B.Y., & Morgan, J. (2001). Growing roles for teachers’ aides. Education Digest, 66(7), 60-65. http://foa.sagepub.com/content/22/3/149.refs?cited-by=yes&legid=spfoa;22/3/149

This article describes the development of and directions for using a 16-item screening tool designed to assist crossstakeholder school teams in determining the extent to Which they may be overreliant on special education paraprofessionals or using them inappropriately. The content of the tool is based on contemporary, descriptive research regarding paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Additionally, the article describes the field-testing of the screening tool in 27 schools (Grades K—12) in six states. Findings suggest that all 16 screening items represent substantial concerns that interfere With the delivery of high-quality inclusive schooling. Implications for practice are discussed.

Bennett T., Deluca, D., & Bruns, D. (1997). Putting inclusion into practice. Exceptional Children, 64(1), 115-131.

This study found that classroom teachers needed more support in class as well as help in modifying and adapting the classroom environment and activities, and training on techniques for working with kids with disabilities. The authors mention paraprofessionals specifically.

Benshoff J.J., Eckert, J.M., Riggar, T.F., & Taylor, D.W. (1995). Parameters of paraprofessionalism: Exploring the myths and realities associated with paraprofessionals in rehabilitation settings. Journal of Rehabilitation Administration, 19, 133-143.

Bernstorf E. D. (2001). Paraprofessionals in music settings. Music Educators Journal, 87 (4), 36-40. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ660096&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ660096

Focuses on using paraprofessionals to work with special needs students within the music education classroom. Discusses the types of paraprofessionals, ways of using paraprofessionals in a music setting, and how to include the paraprofessional by highlighting roles they can fill. (CMK)

Black S. (2002, May). Not just helping hands. American School Board Journal, 189(5), 42-44. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/black.html

Based on recent research and data on paraprofessionals, this article describes the roles paraprofessionals play in schools and builds an argument for career ladders that help them become teachers. The number of paraprofessionals in public schools has grown faster than the number of teachers. When properly trained, supervised, and supported paraprofessionals can successfully contribute to student achievement and their work is an excellent training ground for future teachers. In fact many of them do want to become teachers but need support to enter school and complete their degrees. Research is cited that indicates paraprofessional career ladder programs are a good investment for schools districts and that paraprofessionals could help ease the current teacher shortage.

Blodgett E. G. & Miller, J. M. (1996). Speech-language paraprofessionals working in Kentucky Schools. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 65-79. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ550632&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ550632

The roles of SLPs associated with a medical model have now shifted to a role more tailored for the educational model.

Brown L., Farrington, K., Ziegler, M., Knight, T., & Ross, C. (1999). Fewer paraprofessionals and more teachers and therapists in educational programs for students with significant disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 249-252. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ603331&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ603331

This article describes what other studies have found to be problems with the employment of paraeducators in educational settings. It also makes recommendations for eleven specific things that can be accomplished by paraeducators and recommends that we need to increase the number of paraeducators working in schools, not decrease them.

Causton-Theoharis, J., Giangreco, M.F., Doyle, M.B., & Vadasy, P.F. (2007). Paraprofessionals: The “sous chefs” of literacy instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children 40(1), 56-62. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/parasupport/TEC0740%281%2956-62.pdf

A primary responsibility of general and special educators is to teach students how to read. In inclusive classrooms, paraprofessionals are utilized frequently to support literacy instruction. Paraprofessionals can be employed to help improve reading skills of students with disabilities or those considered at-risk. In this article we outline commonalities from the body of literature where paraprofessionals were used to successfully improve the reading skills of students. These commonalities include: (a) paraprofessionals were used for supplemental, rather than primary instruction; (b) research-based reading approaches were used so that paraprofessionals were not inappropriately asked to make pedagogical decisions, © paraprofessionals were explicitly and extensively trained in the research-based reading approach; (d) paraprofessionals were explicitly trained in behavior management; and (e) teachers and special educators provided paraprofessionals with ongoing monitoring and feedback regarding their instruction. Each of these commonalities is addressed and other practical considerations are also shared and discussed.

Chopra R. V., Sandoval-Lucero, E., Aragon, L., Bernal, C., Berg de Balderas, H., & Carroll, D. The paraprofessional role of connector. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 219-231. PDF Document

This study revealed that close relationships between parents and a paraprofessionals and children and paraprofessionals. These relationships provided the basis for the paraprofessionals to act as connectors between parents and teachers, students and teachers, students and their parents, parents and community services. Paraprofessionals shared how they provided connections between the student and curriculum by using specific strategies aimed at helping students learn. The study also uncovered the barriers and factors that hamper or help the paraprofessional role as a connector. The findings present implications for future practice in terms of how schools can support and encourage this role towards improving everyday instructions for all students.

Clayton T. (1993). From domestic helper to “assistant teacher”: the changing role of the British classroom assistant. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 8(1), 32-44. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/30437909040244379/content~db=all~content=a746737028~frm=abslink

Since the implementation of the 1981 Education Act,Local Education Authorities (LEAs) in England and Wales have appointed greatly increased numbers of classroom assistants to help mainstream teachers with the education and management of pupils with special educational needs. Traditionally, these assistants undertook care and housekeeping duties but more recently their role has developed to include substantial involvement in the learning process itself, albeit under the supervision of the class teacher. This paper traces this role change, discusses the reasons for it as well as the implications. The need for clear job descriptions as well as adequate preparation, support and training of assistants, is highlighted with reference to recent research.

Crosswait-Degen A., Larson, L. L., Marquiss, D., Wragge, M., Christensen, J. E. (1987, Fall). Suggestions regarding the training of speech-language pathologists as supervisors of supportive personnel. Rocky Mountain Journal, 12-15.

This review of the literature addresses the SLP role and the paraeducator’s role. The authors suggest training for SLPs to be supervisors, evaluation of supervisory performance, and minimal educational requirements of assistants.

Fletcher-Campbell F. (1992). How can we use an extra pair of hands? British Journal of Special Education, 19(4), 141-143. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/fletcher.html

Based on research conducted by the National Foundation for Educational Research (United Kingdom), the author describes findings from their study and recommendations for effective practice. Findings reveal a great deal of variability among schools in the hiring, assigning and management of paraprofessionals. Lack of paraprofessional training appears to be the rule rather than the exception. Findings also identify limitations among classroom teachers in knowing how to use and supervise paraprofessionals effectively. Role confusion between classroom teachers and paraprofessionals are reported as a common issue. Recommendations for effective practice outline a variety of strategies to clarify the roles of paraprofessionals and classroom teachers. Training recommendations consider orientation and long- term needs of paraprofessionals. Policy recommendations include the establishment of meaningful school-wide processes to develop a written policy related to the role of paraprofessionals

French N.K., & Gerlach, K., (1999). Topic #1 Paraeducators: Who are they and what do they do? Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(1), 65-69. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/french3.html

This is the initial article in a new feature within the journal called “Paraeducator Supervision Notebook”. The feature is edited by Nancy K. French and Kent Gerlach. In this first topic the author addresses a series of foundational topics of interest to teachers by answering a variety of questions. These topical questions include: (1) What is a paraeducator? (2) How many paraeducators are there? (3) What background training do they have? (4) Who are the people who hold paraeducator positions? (5) What are typical characteristics of the people who work as paraeducators? (6) What do paraeducators do? (7) What does the presence of a paraeducator imply about my (teacher) role? (8) What advantage is there to employing paraeducators in special education? (9) What does this mean to your district? (10) What does this mean to you? (11) What can you do? (12) How can you get your questions answered? The article provides brief answers to these questions and incorporates contemporary issues such as inclusive education and changes in IDEA.

French N. K. (1999). Topic #2 Paraeducators and teachers: Shifting roles. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(2), 69-73. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/?Page=parasupport/chrono.html

Explores the changing roles of both teachers and educators. Practical suggestions for educators and paraeducators in inclusive programs; Knowledge of the issues associated with the assignment of tasks to paraeducators; Three sets of considerations.

Gartner A., & Reissman, F. (1974). The paraprofessional movement in perspective. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 53, 253-256. http://www.teacher-courses.com/drake/syllabi/eddl250.pdf

Ghere, G., & York-Barr, J. (2007). Paraprofessional turnover and retention in inclusive programs: Hidden costs and promising practices. Remedial and Special Education, 28(1), 21-32. http://rse.sagepub.com/content/28/1/21.full.pdf+html

In recent years, education policies have focused on raising the standards for paraprofessional qualifications, supervision, and development. Given the increasingly problematic rates of paraprofessional turnover, focusing on the retention of effective paraprofessionals is of equal importance. In an effort to understand the reasons for and costs of turnover and to identify strategies that increase the likelihood of retention, 53 district and school employees from six schools in three school districts were interviewed. The findings indicated that the costs of turnover are felt at every level within a school district: central office, school, team, and student. Also suggested were strategies for increasing retention, including ensuring a threshold wage, focusing on job matching early in the employment process, providing ongoing support and direction, and developing a team culture in which paraprofessionals feel valued.

Griffin-Shirley, N. & Matlock, D. (2004). Paraprofessionals speak out: A survey. Re:View: Rehabilitation and Education in Blindness and Visual Impairments, 36(3), 127-136.

Hampden-Thompson, G., Diehl, J., & Kinukawa, A. (2007). Description and employment criteria of instructional paraprofessionals (No. NCES 2007-008). Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2007008

This Issue Brief (1) offers a descriptive portrait of the distribution of instructional paraprofessionals in all public elementary and secondary schools by instructional responsibility and selected school characteristics and (2) examines the educational attainment criteria used by school districts in hiring these paraprofessionals. Data for this analysis were drawn from the 2003–04 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). The findings from this analysis indicate that 91 percent of public elementary and secondary schools in the United States had at least one instructional paraprofessional on staff in 2003–04. A greater percentage of traditional public schools than charter schools had instructional paraprofessionals and a greater percentage of elementary schools than secondary schools report having instructional paraprofessionals. Overall, 93 percent of schools were in districts that required paraprofessionals to have a high school diploma or the equivalent. The results also indicate that a greater percentage of Title I schools than non-Title I schools were in districts that required instructional paraprofessionals to have a high school diploma or the equivalent.

Hebdon, H. (2008). The use of one-on-one paraprofessionals in the classroom. Exceptional Parent, 38(3), 88-89.

Howard, R. & Ford, J. (2007). The roles and responsibilities of teacher aides supporting students with special needs in secondary school settings. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 31(1), 25-43. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a779309763~db=all~tab=content~order=page

This study examined the perceptions of teacher aides regarding their roles and responsibilities in supporting senior students with special needs in mainstream secondary school settings. Fourteen teacher aides were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide to determine their views regarding their roles and responsibilities, the challenges they faced, their relationships with parents, teachers and students, and their professional development needs. Findings from the study indicated that the participating teacher aides performed a variety of roles and that they often had a considerable degree of autonomy and responsibility in providing academic, social, and behavioural support to the students they served. Teacher aides reported that they were generally satisfied with their jobs and proud of their contributions and accomplishments. However their relationships with teaching staff were often challenging. Teacher aides also indicated that their roles and responsibilities were not clearly delineated, their professional status was not formally recognised, opportunities for advancement and professional development were limited, and that they received little systematic feedback and evaluation of their performance.

Hughes, M. T. & Valle-Riestra, D. M. (2008). Responsibilities, preparedness, and job satisfaction of paraprofessionals: Working with young children with disabilities. International Journal of Early Years Education, 16 (2), 163-173. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a794114647&db=all

To support teachers with their classroom responsibilities, schools have increasingly turned to paraprofessionals for assistance, with the largest numbers of paraprofessionals employed in the field of special education. Owing to this important role that paraprofessionals now perform in the education of children with disabilities in the USA, we set out to investigate the responsibilities that paraprofessionals working with young children with disabilities had. We were also interested in identifying how paraprofessionals and the teachers with whom they work alongside perceived the paraprofessionals’ level of preparedness for their roles and their job satisfaction. Fifty-two paraprofessionals and 59 teachers of young children with disabilities participated in the study. Overall, both paraprofessionals and teachers indicated that paraprofessionals were generally well prepared for activities they frequently engaged in and both viewed themselves as collaborative members of an educational team.

Johnson M.M., Lasater, M.W., & Fitzgerald, M.M. (1997). Paraeducator: Not just an aide. Journal of Staff Development, 18(1), 6-11. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/johnson.html

This article describes the authors’ suggestions for essential content of staff development for paraeducators. This content includes: (1) paraeducators’ roles and responsibilities, (2) learner characteristics, (3) data collection, (4) behavioral and instructional strategies, and (5) health-related issues. The authors also present a framework for planning professional development. They conclude with 10 recommendations: (1) communicate that paraeducators are valued and important to the instructional process; (2) incorporate the results of needs assessment; (3) provide ongoing responsive support; (4) include numerous opportunities for sharing, interacting, and problem solving; (5) allow for venting while ensuring refocusing and action; (6) build a solid knowledge base that reflects students’ needs/goals; (7) offer concrete tools to take back to the classroom; (8) offer practical alternatives for responding to implementation challenges, (9) provide opportunities to partner teachers and paraeducators to experience professional development together; and (10) celebrate paraeducators’ successes.

Lamont L. L…, & Hill, J. L. (1991). Roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals in the regular elementary classroom. British Columbia Journal of Special Education, 15(1), 1-24.

This article report on a research study. A questionnaire asked regular education teachers and paraeducators about the actual, preferred, not appropriate and not applicable tasks paraeducators were performing in regular education classrooms where special education students were integrated. The study took place in 5 school districts in British Colombia. The participants’ responses were similar for actual and preferred tasks. Tasks listed as not appropriate were instructional in nature; those that were not applicable were in the area of personal care and assistance to students.

Lenski, S. D., (2006). Reflections on being biliterate: Lessons from paraprofessionals, Action in Teacher Education, 28, 104-113. http://www.ctserc.org/library/bibfiles/Paraprofessionals%20November%202006%20-%20September%202007.pdf

Lieberman, L. J. (2007). Paraeducators in physical education: A training guide to roles and responsibilities. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics. Publisher’s page.

Loschert K. (2003). No para left behind. NEA Today, 21(6). Reviews the NCLB legislation as it relates to paraeducators.

Lytle, R., Lieberman, L., & Aiello, R. (2007). Motivating paraeducators to be actively involved in physical education programs. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 78(4), 26-30.

MacVean M.L., & Hall, L.J. (1997). The integration assistant: Benefits, challenges and recommendations. Australian Disability Review, 2/97, 3-9. http://www.ctserc.org/library/bibfiles/Paraprofessionals%20November%202006%20-%20September%202007.pdf

This article summarizes the “opinion and experiences of the authors” (p. 4) based on their close working relationship with the Essex Heights Primary School in Melbourne, Australia. This school “has along history of integration and inclusion” (p 4). In 1996 this school had 714 students, 38 of whom had disabilities (about 5%). They employed 21 “integration assistants” and two “integration teachers” (p. 5). The authors discuss benefits primarily related to teamwork and mutual support among team members. Challenges included time limitations for effective teamwork, planning and evaluation as well as the need for adequate training for all team members. The authors offer a series of recommendations for integration assistants (e.g., advocating for children’s independence; assist children to be socially accepted and to have fun with peers; be patient, caring, encouraging and accepting of children’s rights).

Miramontes O. B., Nadeau, A., Commins, N. L. (1997). Restructuring Schools for Linguistic Diversity . New York: Teacher’s College Press.

This article has implications for paraeducator role in bilingual classroom. The authors state that the primary language plays an important role in developing deeper understandings of a topic – as in social studies concepts, which may be taught in English. The native-language paraeducator can play important role here helping to deepen the students understanding of a topic by having conversation with them in their native language. The article recommends cross-grade groupings and specifies that when paraeducators take a group, their instruction must be directly coordinated and supervised by certificated licensed teachers.

Morgan J., Ashbaker, B.Y., & Forbush, D. (2000, November/December). Special helpers. American School Board Journal, 187(1), 54-56.

Paoni M. F., Wise, S. P., Marshall, M. & Kelly, R. (1996). Classroom Aide-Teacher Relationships. NASP Communiqué. p. 22.

The authors discuss the role of the school psychologist around classroom aide-teacher issues. They are involved in selection, orientation and on the job training of aides. They assist aides in developing skills in behavioral observation. They work with aides to make certain that intervention plans are implemented correctly and monitored on a regular basis. They also help to expand the roles of aides (e.g. through participating in behavior management plans or home-school communication strategies).

Palladino P., Cornoldi, C., Vianello, R., Scruggs, T. & Mastropieri (1999). Paraprofessionals in Italy: Perspectives from an inclusive country. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 253-256.

Patterson, K.B. (2006). Roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals: In their own words. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 2(5). http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1189&context=education/tecplus

This study focused on the perceptions of paraprofessionals regarding the roles they fulfill while working with children with disabilities in special education and inclusive settings. Students were in grades K-12 and represented a range of disability categories (e.g.,autism spectrum disorders, serious emotional disturbance, development disabilities, and learning disabilities). Twenty-two paraprofessionals were interviewed using a semi structured interview guide to establish their understanding of their roles, responsibilities, teacher expectations, training needs, and challenges they experienced while working with others. Findings from this study indicate that paraprofessionals tend to assume high levels of responsibility for managing the academic and behavioral needs for all students. This article addresses ways to improve our own practices in how we work with paraprofessionals

Pickett A. L. (1989). Restructuring the schools: The role of paraprofessionals. Washington D. C.: Center for Policy Research, National Governor’s Association. http://ici.umn.edu/products/impact/152/over2.html

Nationwide there is a growing recognition of the roles of paraeducators as integral members of the instructional process, and the need to develop standards and systems for improving the employment, performance, and preparation of the paraeducator workforce. There are several inter-related reasons for the growing interest in paraeducator issues. In this article, we are focusing on two of the most important issues. The first is the new dimensions that have been added over the last two decades to the traditionally recognized roles and functions of teachers. The second is the provisions contained in two federal legislative actions. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, which amended the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), includes several sections that impact on paraeducator employment, training, and supervision in Title I. In addition, amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997 (IDEA) require states to develop policies and standards to ensure that paraeducators are appropriately trained and supervised. Both of these factors have shaped the evolution in the roles, supervision, and preparation of paraeducators who work in early childhood education; elementary, middle, and secondary inclusive general and special education classrooms; Title 1; multi-lingual; and other compensatory programs provided by local education agencies (LEAs) nationwide.

Pickett A. L. (2003). Paraeducators in educational settings: Framing the issues. In A. L. Pickett & K. Gerlach (Eds.) Supervising paraeducators in educational settings: A team approach (2 nd ed.) (pp. 1-44). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

An introduction to the book that recounts the history of the use of paraeducators in education. The editor also summarizes current issues surrounding the employment and training of paraeducators.

Pickett A. L., Likins, M., & Wallace, T. (2003). The employment and preparation of paraeducators, the state of the art – 2003. Utah: The National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals. Retrieved from: http://www.nrcpara.org

A review of literature on the current issues facing the field of education regarding the employment, training, preparation, and career development of paraeducators.

Pickett A. L., Vasa, S. F., & Steckelberg, A. L. (1993). Using paraeducators effectively in the classroom. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Foundation. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED369732&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=ED369732

Paraprofessionals in education have become specialists, who are more accurately described as paraeducators. Paraeducators work alongside their professional colleagues and participate in the delivery of instruction and related services. This pamphlet provides information about strategies that can improve the deployment, supervision, and training of paraeducators. The pamphlet describes the role of district-level personnel, principals, and teachers in establishing paraeducator programs; clarifies the role of the paraeducator and the supervising teacher; provides a sample paraeducator job description; offers suggestions on daily supervision of the paraeducator; outlines important lesson plan components; provides a list of self-evaluation questions for the paraeducator; offers guidelines for training paraeducators through orientation, inservice training, and on-the-job training; and discusses evaluating paraeducator performance and evaluating teacher supervision of paraeducator performance. The pamphlet concludes with a list of five suggested readings. (JDD)

Piletic, C., Davis, R., & Aschemeier, A. (2005). Paraeducators in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 76(5), 47-55. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ699601&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ699601

Paraeducators have long been employed in the classroom, but their services have not yet been fully put to use in the gymnasium. With the ever-increasing number of physically and mentally challenged students enrolled in general education classes, paraeducators are becoming an essential part of any physical education class. This article explores the various uses of a paraeducator in the gymnasium and explains how they can best aid physical educators. The authors stress that the working relationship between paraeducators and physical educators must include much discussion and clearly defined expectations

Radaszewski-Byrne M. (1997). Issues in the development of guidelines for the preparation and use of speech-language paraprofessionals and their SL supervisors working in education settings. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 5-22. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ550628&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ550628

Reviews the preparation, use, supervision, and qualifications of speech-language (SL) paraprofessionals and their SL supervisors working in educational settings. Identifies ongoing issues that have been barriers to the development of national and state guidelines for SL paraprofessional use and supervision and discusses current issues promoting the development of such guidelines. Offers recommendations. (Author/DB)

Reissman F. (1984). Paraprofessionals: Twenty years later. Social Policy, 14, 39.

Rogan P., & Held, M. (1999). Paraprofessionals in job coach roles. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 32-42. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ603334&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ603334

This article makes recommendations for recruitment and retention of paraeducators for job coach positions. The authors suggest that programs develop accurate job descriptions, proactively recruit desired personnel, and conduct relevant interviews. Furthermore they recommend that programs invest in retention efforts including ongoing professional development opportunities, increasing pay for experience, credentials, and performance, and providing systems of support. The article also identifies some problems with job coaches in work places and discusses specialist vs. generalist roles.

Rose R. (2000). Using classroom support in the primary school: A single case study. British Journal of Special Education, 27(4), 191-196. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8527.00188/pdf

Rueda R. & DeNeve, C. E. (1999). How paraeducators build cultural bridges in diverse classrooms. Community Circle of Caring Journal, 23, 53-55. http://www.usc.edu/dept/education/CMMR/paraed/Rueda_DeNeve_article.html

In their efforts to accommodate cultural diversity in the classroom, schools have taken a variety of approaches – few of them ideal. In this article, the authors examine how educators can use the “funds of knowledge” available in culturally diverse families and communities to build bridges between the home cultures of students and the cultures of their schools. The student population of American public schools is rapidly becoming more culturally diverse – not in just a few states or in large urban school districts, but on a national scale. The evidence of this can be seen in the increasing number of public school students using English as a second language. Although the general school population in the United States increased only slightly between 1985 and 1992, the number of students acquiring English as a second language grew from fewer than 1.5 million to almost 2.7 million in that same time frame (Goldenberg, 1996). While diversity in the classroom is not troubling by itself ‹ and can, in fact, enrich the learning environment ‹ it is too often associated with low academic achievement. According to Kao and Tienda (1995) achievement differences in all academic areas between whites and Latino students appear early and persist throughout their school careers. How can schools accommodate diversity in such a way that they “level the playing field” for all children, regardless of cultural differences?

Rueda, R., & Genzuk, M. (2007). Sociocultural scaffolding as a means towards academic self-regulation: Paraeducators as cultural brokers. Focus on Exceptional Children, 40(3), 1-8. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ823984&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ823984

In seeking ways to address issues in diverse classrooms, the authors have focused their recent work on paraeducators. The nation’s nearly 500,000 paraeducators working in K-12 classrooms embody a potential source of prospective instructors for the nation’s diverse student population in both special and general education. Paraeducators are school employees whose responsibilities are instructional in nature or who deliver other services to students, working under the supervision of teachers or other professional personnel who have the ultimate responsibility for educational programs. The authors are currently engaged in research examining the instructional activities of Latino paraeducators in classrooms with English language learners. The initial findings of their research reveal that many paraeducators are assigned low-level activities and are given little freedom in terms of instructional activities. While paraeducators do not have the formal training and credentials that teachers do, they do have contributions to make to diverse classrooms. The authors contend that teachers should consider carefully the role of paraeducators in their classrooms and to evaluate whether there are better ways to incorporate and build on this resource.

Rueda, R., Monzo, L. D., & Higareda, I. (2004). Appropriating the sociocultural resources of Latino paraeducators for effective instruction with Latino students: Promise and problems. Urban Education, 39(1), 52-90. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ690748&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ690748

This article examines the sociocultural scaffolding practices of 24 Latino paraeducators and 8 former Latino paraeducators (who had recently become teachers) as they worked with Latino students in two large urban schools. Instances were observed in which participants used important funds of knowledge in their interactions with students during instruction, in informal contexts, and in the case of the current paraeducators to inform the teachers with whom they worked in the community. Unfortunately, use of sociocultural scaffolding was scarce, nonstrategic, and not directly tied to instruction. We argue that under ideal instructional conditions, this knowledge should be fostered, used strategically, and appropriated more systematically.

Singh P. (2000). Local and official forms of symbolic control: An Australian case study of the pedagogic work of para-educational personnel. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 4(1), 3-21. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a713813697~frm=abslink

In this paper an analysis is undertaken of the accounts of pedagogic work provided by para-educational personnel working in two government-funded schools situated in a low socio-economic area of an Australian city. Specifically, the paper examines the accounts of two para-educational personnel who identified as Samoan/Pacific Islander and worked to improve the educational outcomes of students from the local Samoan/Pacific Islander community. It is argued that the pedagogic work of para-educational personnel may play an important role in redistributing discursive (informational) resources transmitted through schooling institutions. However, the positioning of para-educational personnel in the field of the local community and the field of education regulates the form/modality of pedagogic work, that is, what is taught and how it is taught. Moreover, the content and form of pedagogic work has the potential for realising inclusive and/or exclusive relations for students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Takala, M. (2007). The work of classroom assistants in special and mainstream education in Finland. British Journal of Special Education, 34(1), 50-57. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ763888&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ763888

The contribution of teaching assistants, learning support assistants or classroom assistants is becoming increasingly important in inclusive and specialist classrooms. In this article, Marjatta Takala, professor in special education at the University of Helsinki, describes her research into the work of 14 classroom assistants working in a mix of mainstream and special schools in Helsinki, Finland. The results reveal that the tasks undertaken by assistants are different in mainstream and specialist settings and vary also according to the ages of the children involved. The assistants spent more of their time, for example, working directly with children if they worked in mainstream schools. Assistants in special schools, by comparison, spent more time assisting the teacher. Further, assistants working among older children spent more time waiting or simply listening to the lesson than those working with younger children, who seemed to be more actively involved with supporting learning. Marjatta Takala analyses her results by the full range of tasks encountered; according to three broad types of work; and in terms of the planning and co-operation undertaken by assistants and teachers at the class level. Her discussion will be of interest to anyone concerned with the development of support in the classroom and the education of both teachers and teaching assistants.

Tillery C. Y., Werts, M. G., Roark, R., & Harris, S. (2003). Perceptions of paraeducators on job retention. Teacher Education and Special Education, 26 (2), 118-127.

The authors suggest that factors that are pertinent to teacher retention and attrition may also apply to paraeducators. These include burnout as related to low pay, lack of training, lack of support from parents, stress, student discipline problems, inadequate and insufficient materials, lack of administrative support, lack of influence over school policies and practices, and ambiguity of role definition.

Turner D. J. & Grotzky, M. E. (1995). They teach too: A role for paraprofessionals in library instruction. Reference Librarian, 51-52, 181-193. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ518310&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ518310

Describes the use of paraprofessional library staff at Aurora Library (Colorado) to teach part of the bibliographic instruction sessions. Highlights include strategic planning, revising the library instruction program to incorporate reduction and still meet the students’ educational needs, staff attitudes, and program evaluation and changes. (LRW)

U.S. Department of Education (1997). Roles for education paraprofessionals in effective schools: An idea book. Washington, DC: Author. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED413317&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=ED413317

Educational paraprofessionals can provide strong, multidimensional support for students’ academic success. The first part of this book presents information on roles for education paraprofessionals in effective schools, focusing on the history of paraprofessionals as multifaceted members of the schools staff, the work of paraprofessionals, how to assess whether paraprofessionals can help, and elements of good paraprofessional practice. The second part offers an overview of 15 effective programs nationwide that employ paraprofessionals. The programs include: early childhood education, Title I instruction, Head Start, parent participation, school employee effectiveness training, site-based management, career development, and bilingual pupil services. The third part of the book profiles the 15 effective programs in detail. The three appendixes present listings of paraprofessional job titles and descriptions, profile sites and contacts, and information on Federal student aid programs. (Contains 25 references.) (SM)

Wallace, T. (2004). Paraprofessionals in schools. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 17 (1), 46-61.

Ashbaker B.Y., & Morgan, J. (Spring 2004). Legal issues relating to school paraprofessionals. A Legal Memorandum: Quarterly Law Topics for School Leaders (pp. 1-7). Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals. (ISSN 0192-6152) http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/LMSpring04.pdf

Complaints, hearings, legal opinions, and lawsuits on issues surrounding the training and supervision of paraprofessionals are increasing. Concern over the lack of preparation of paraprofessionals and the sporadic nature of the training that is available to them (Morgan, Hofmeister, & Ashbaker, 1995; Pickett, 1996) have led to the development of training programs in many states, although these paraprofessional training programs are often localized rather than statewide. Some training has also been developed for supervising teachers (e.g., Morgan & Ashbaker, 2001), and a few programs have been developed for teacher and paraprofessional teams (e.g., Ashbaker & Morgan, 2000; Morgan, 2000). However, the comprehensive system of personnel development needed to ensure proper supervision of paraprofessionals lacks specific guidance for administrators in leading and supporting teacher-paraprofessional instructional teams for maximum effectiveness (Hilton & Gerlach, 1997; Morgan, Ashbaker, & Roberts, 2000). The responsibility of school administrators to oversee the effectiveness of teacher-paraprofessional teams delivering instruction to students is crucial. Failure to carefully examine the profile of a school’s paraprofessionals, including the role they serve in relation to teachers and the part they play on the instructional team, could put the school and the school district at risk of legal proceedings.

Etscheidt, S. (2005). Paraprofessional services for students with disabilities: A legal analysis of issues. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(2), 60-80. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/Etscheidt.pdf

Concomitant with the increase in the number of paraprofessionals assisting students with disabilities is the emergence of legal issues pertaining to the need, selection, responsibilities, preparation, and supervision of those paraprofessionals. The purpose of this article is to provide a legal analysis of administrative and judicial decisions concerning these issues and to propose guidelines for ensuring appropriate paraprofessional involvement in the educational programs for students with disabilities.

Fluery M. L. (2000). Confidentiality issues with substitutes and paraeducators. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(1), 44-45. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/fluery.html

This article is geared primarily towards first-year teachers of special education. It serves as a reminder on how to handle confidentiality issues with substitute teachers and substitute paraeducators. The author offers advice and solutions in hopes of creating a smooth, consistent transition in the classroom at all times. The author offers point by point guidelines on what to do when the teacher is absent and what to do when the paraeducator is absent. These specific procedures and suggestions stress the importance of planning ahead of time, delegating specific tasks, being consistent and openly communicating the importance of confidentiality, no matter who is in the classroom.

Giangreco M. F. & Broer, S. M. (2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are we addressing symptoms or causes? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 10-26. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/FOAODD0520%281%2910-26.pdf

This article presents descriptive, quantitative data from 737 school personnel and parents who support the education of students with a full range of disabilities in general education classes. The study addresses (a) how special education teachers and paraprofessionals spend their time, (b) perspectives of paraprofessionals about certain paraprofessional practices, and © perspectives of professionals and parents about school wide practices associated with inclusive special education that may contribute to reducing inappropriate utilization of special education paraprofessionals. The findings highlight concerns and suggest that focusing change efforts on paraprofessional issues without corresponding attention to general and special education issues is akin to addressing the symptoms of a problem rather than its roots.

Katsiyannis A., Hodge, J., & Lanford, A. (2000). Paraeducators: legal and practice considerations. Remedial and Special Education, 21(5), 297-304. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/katsiyannis.html

This article explains the background of a case involving school health services. IDEA mandates that school health services must be provided by a qualified school nurse or other qualified person, but it does specify that courts ruled that a health aide can perform CIC (clean intermittent catheterization) and trach tube suctioning.

Kennedy J.H. (1995). Teachers, student teachers, paraprofessionals, and young adults’ judgments about the acceptable use of corporal punishment in the rural south. Education and Treatment of Children, 18(1), 53-64. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/kennedy.html

This quantitative, descriptive study included questionnaire data from 256 teachers (grades K-12), 60 paraprofessionals (classroom aides), 241 practicing student teachers, and 480 college students. The questionnaire was designed to measure their views toward corporal punishment based on six scenarios. “Overall, paraprofessionals were more likely to favor using corporal punishment than were other individuals. The most important predictor for the use of corporal punishment was a history of corporal punishment administered by parents, especially for paraprofessionals. This suggests that a more extensive support system (e.g., mentors, modeling, in-service training) be provided for the learning and maintenance of positive classroom management techniques for classroom educators.” (p. 53).

Rubin P. M. & Long, R. M. (1994, Spring). Who is teaching our children: Implications of the use of aides in Chapter 1. ERS Spectrum, 28-34.
Rubin, P. M. & Long, R. M. (1994, Spring). Who is teaching our children: Implications of the use of aides in Chapter 1. ERS Spectrum, 28-34.
http://rse.sagepub.com/content/25/4/219.refs?patientinform-links=yes&legid=sprse;25/4/219

This article presents paraeducators’ perceptions of the role they play in connecting the school to its community. Forty-nine paraeducators employed in various educational settings participated in focus-group interviews. Paraeducators reported close relationships with students and their parents that provided the basis for the paraprofessionals to act as connectors between parents and teachers, parents and community services, students and teachers, students and their parents, and students and their peers. The participants shared how they provided connections between the student and curriculum by using specific strategies aimed at helping students learn. The study uncovered the barriers that hamper the paraprofessional role as a connector.

Zirkel, P. A. (2007). What does the law say? Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(3), 61-63. http://keystoneeducational.com/resources/Update%208-09/FBA%20and%20the%20Law%20Article.pdf

Paraeducators and Inclusion

Alborz, A., Pearson, D., Farrell, P. and Howes, A. (2009). The impact of adult support staff on pupils and mainstream schools, London: Dept. for Children, Schools and Families and Institute of Education. http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=uBgdhgYK3Bk%3D&tabid=2438&language=en-US

Angelides, P, Constantinou, C, & Leigh, J. (2009). The role of paraprofessionals in developing inclusive education in Cyprus. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 24(1), 75-89. “http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ825587&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ825587”:http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ825587&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ825587":http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearchSearchValue0=EJ825587&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ825587

A presupposition of inclusive education is that all children have the right to attend the school of their neighborhood. The implication of this is that schools begin to be organized in ways to provide equal opportunities for teaching and learning of all children. However, to achieve this, it is implied that schools need more teachers or at least personnel. Thus, many educational systems around the world require the involvement of more teachers and this brings a significant additional financial cost. In order to defray some of the additional costs for additional teachers, many school systems opt to involve paraprofessionals in the educational process, especially for supporting children who experience difficulties in learning. The purpose of this paper is to study the role of paraprofessionals in the educational environment of Cyprus, and how they assist in the provision of more inclusive education. We employed qualitative research methods to collect data from two schools. Our findings show that paraprofessionals had a contradictory contribution to inclusive education: both inclusion and exclusion were two parallel processes in their practices. In addition, their roles were confused. They appeared to have double roles both as pedagogues and as social monitors. This confused status influenced the paraprofessionals’ contribution towards the provision of fully effective inclusive education. (Contains 1 table.)

Blacher, J. (2007). Holding on to their kitestrings: Paraprofessional support in inclusive settings. Exceptional Parent, 37(10), 74-76. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ781204&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ781204

Many students “included” in general education today are accompanied by a paraprofessional, also known as a 1-to-1 aide, therapist, behavioral aide, or personal assistant. The use of a paraprofessional, particularly with children who have autism, mental retardation, deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities has many merits, such as increased behavioral support, personal care assistance, and additional supervision. It may seem the only disadvantage would be the additional cost to the school. However, individual paraprofessional support has both advantages and disadvantages for the child. Parents should consider all of these before determining that their child requires a 1-to-1 paraprofessional. While the drawbacks of paraprofessional support might lead some parents and school staff to reconsider the service all together, there are some strategies that can help assure the appropriate use of the 1-to-1. [“Holding on to Their Kitestrings: Paraprofessional Support in Inclusive Settings” was written with Tiffany Rodriguez.]

Carter, E.W. & Hughes, Carolyn (2006). Including high school students with severe disabilities in general education classes: Perspectives of general and special educators, paraprofessionals, and administrators. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31, 174-185. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ756423&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ756423

Increasing the participation of youth with severe disabilities in general education has remained a consistent and prominent focus of legislative, policy, and research initiatives. We examined the perceptions of high school staff regarding the goals, barriers, benefits, outcomes, and supports associated with including adolescents with severe disabilities in general education classes. We found that general and special educators, paraprofessionals, and administrators both converged and diverged in their evaluations of different aspects of general education participation. Despite broad agreement regarding the benefits of and instructional priorities in general education classrooms, stakeholders differed significantly in their perceptions of barriers associated with including students with disabilities in general education classes at their high schools. (Contains 5 tables.)

Carter, E. W., Sisco, L. G., Melekoglu, M. A., & Kurkowski, C. (2007). Peer supports as an alternative to individually assigned paraprofessionals in inclusive high school classrooms. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 32(4), 1-15. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ816668&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ816668

Promoting access to the general curriculum has emerged as a central theme of the standards-based reform movement, challenging educators to identify effective strategies for supporting students with disabilities to access the numerous social and learning opportunities within general education. We examined peer support interventions as an alternative to one-to-one, adult-delivered support in high school science and art classrooms. All four participants with severe disabilities engaged in substantially more peer interactions when working with a peer support relative to when receiving direct support from a paraprofessional or special educator. Students’ levels of academic engagement were not diminished because of participation in peer support arrangements. We discuss the contributions of these strategies to promoting peer interaction within inclusive classrooms, as well as offer recommendations for further refinement of this intervention approach. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Council for Exceptional Children (2004). The CEC paraeducator standards workbook. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Causton-Theoharis, J. N. (2009). The golden rule of providing support in inclusive classrooms: Support others as you would wish to be supported. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(2), 36-43. http://www.pealcenter.org/images/Theoharis.Golden_Rule.pdf

Causton-Theoharis, J. (2009). The paraprofessional’s handbook for effective support in inclusive classrooms. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Downing J. E., Ryndak, D. L., & Clark, D. (2000). Paraeducators in inclusive classrooms. Remedial and Special Education, 21(3), 171-181. http://www.pealcenter.org/images/Theoharis.Golden_Rule.pdf

The perceptions of paraeducators regarding their roles and responsibilities in supporting students with moderate to severe disabilities in general education classrooms were the focus of this qualitative study. Sixteen paraeducators were interviewed using a semistructured interview guide to determine their understanding of their role, challenges they experienced, training needs, and relationships with other team members. Numerous roles and different types of responsibilities were described, such as teaching, adapting materials, facilitating interactions with peers, and implementing behavioral interventions. Paraeducators also reported a considerable degree of independence in decision making and implementation of programs. Although the critical importance of paraeducators in the support of students with severe disabilities is not in question, the independence while performing their role may not reflect desired practice, given their minimal training and lack of a teaching credential. Implications for the field concerning the use, training, and supervision of paraeducators are presented.

Doyle, M. B. (2008). The paraprofessional’s guide to the inclusive classroom: Working as a team (3rd ed.) Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This handbook is designed to provide introductory information for the paraprofessional, the general educator, and the special educator to enable a better understanding of roles and responsibilities in the inclusive classroom and to enable them to work as a team. Specific instructional strategies that are useful when considering how to provide instruction to students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms are outlined. The guide is divided into five chapters: (1) “The Paraprofessional: Changing Roles and Responsibilities,” addresses why paraprofessionals are in such high demand, the paraprofessionals’ responsibilities in the inclusive classroom, and the type of training and support paraprofessionals require; (2) “The Inclusive Classroom: Being a Team Member,” discusses who paraprofessionals are working with and daily schedules; (3) “The Paraprofessional in the Inclusive Classroom: Supporting Individual Students,” explains Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), how paraprofessionals use IEPs, and the importance of a student’s schedule; (4) “Providing Curricular and Instructional Support: Individualized Instruction,” highlights common components of daily routines, how instructional prompts are provided, and curricular adaptations; and (5) “Maintaining Confidentiality: Communicating with Team Members,” discusses planning communication opportunities and confidentiality requirements. Each chapter provides a brief overview of the topic, chapter objectives, reflections from paraprofessionals, and worksheets. (Contains 15 references.) (CR)

Egilson, S.T., & Traustadottir, R. (2009). Assistance to pupils with physical disabilities in regular schools: Promoting inclusion or creating dependency? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 24(1), 21-36. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a908039973~db=all~jumptype=r

Drawing on the perspectives of pupils with physical disabilities, their parents and teachers, this study explored the adult support provided to pupils with physical disabilities in regular schools. Data were collected through observations at schools and qualitative interviews. In all, 49 individuals participated in this study: 14 pupils with physical disabilities, 17 parents, and 18 teachers. Six themes emerged that characterised the provision of assistance: (1) roles and responsibilities; (2) quantity and content of support (3) proximity to the pupil, (4) school priorities, (5) independence and autonomy of the child; and (6) the relationship between the teacher and the assistant. An over-reliance on adult support was found for some pupils and contexts, while this support appeared to be under-utilised or ineffectively delivered in other situations. Lack of modifications of the traditional curriculum, teacher instructions, and educational activities increased the pupils’ need for adult support in school. While it is acknowledged that teacher assistants can make valuable contributions in promoting participation and learning among pupils with disabilities, it is argued that the constant presence of an assistant can result in limited use of the children’s strengths and may possibly create unnecessary or unhealthy dependencies. The findings signify that the education system must align with important stakeholders – the pupils, their parents, and external support services – to identify alternative ways to promote participation and learning of pupils with disabilities in regular schools.

Farrell P., Balshaw, M., & Polat, F. (2000). The work of learning support assistants in mainstream schools: Implications for school psychologists. Educational and Child Psychology, 17(2), 66-76. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/farrell.html

This study was conducted in the UK to: (1) “obtain the views of a range of stakeholders, including parents, teachers, senior staff in schools and LEAs, pupil and LSA’s (learning support assistants), about their [LSAs] roles in schools, they ways they are managed and supported, career structures and training opportunities;” (p. 67) and (2) “To conduct a nationwide survey of training providers – mainly colleges of further education and LEAs – to obtain an overview of the range of training opportunities that are currently on offer and to seek the views of providers about current and future developments in training.” (p. 68). Semi-structured interviews (mostly individual; some focus groups) were conducted in 21 sites including: (a) 4 LEA support services; (b) 12 mainstream schools (6 primary, 6 secondary); © three special schools; and (d) 2 schools/services maintained by voluntary organizations. The following numbers of individuals participated in interviews: 147 learning support assistants (LSAs), 113 teachers, 47 pupils, 34 parents, 29 special educators, 19 head teachers, four heads of support services, nine school governors. Information was collected on 339 courses being offered. An average of 67% of training providers returned questionnaires (the number of respondents is not specified).

French N. K. (2003). Paraeducators in special education programs. Focus on Exceptional Children, 36(2), 1-16. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/french10.html

Presents information on the use of paraeducators or paraprofessionals in special education programs. Factors which contribute to the use of paraeducators in special education; Cases which showed the effectiveness of paraeducators; Recommendations on improving paraeducator effectiveness in schools; Web sites which offer information on improving practices and policies regarding paraeducators.

Frith G. H. (1982). The role of the special education paraprofessional: An introductory text. Colombus, OH: Charles C. Thomas. http://jte.sagepub.com/content/34/2/63.1.full.pdf+html

Giangreco, M. F. (2009). Critical issues brief: Concerns about the proliferation of one-to-one paraprofessionals. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children, Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities. http://www.dddcec.org/positionpapers/Critical%20Issues%20Brief.pdf

Giangreco, M. F. (2010). One-to-one paraprofessionals for students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Is conventional wisdom wrong? Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 1-13. DOI: 10.1352/1934-9556-48.1.1 http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/IDD2010%2048%281%29%201-13.pdf

Assigning one-to-one paraprofessionals has become an increasingly common response to support students with intellectual and other developmental disabilities in general education classrooms. This article challenges the conventional wisdom that such an approach to service provision is necessarily a desirable and supportive action. Five main reasons are presented that challenge overreliance on the use of one-to-one paraprofessionals in inclusive classrooms, establishing it as a critical issue in special education. A series of recommended positions and initial actions are offered to spur debate and encourage development of alternatives to the status quo.

Giangreco, M.F., Broer, S.M. (2007). School-based screening to determine overreliance on paraprofessionals. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(3), 149-158. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/149-158.pdf

This article describes the development of and directions for using a 16-item screening tool designed to assist crossstakeholder school teams in determining the extent to which they may be overreliant on special education paraprofessionals or using them inappropriately. The content of the tool is based on contemporary, descriptive research regarding paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Additionally, the article describes the field-testing of the screening tool in 27 schools (Grades K–12) in six states. Findings suggest that all 16 screening items represent substantial concerns that interfere with the delivery of high-quality inclusive schooling. Implications for practice are discussed.

Giangreco, M.F., & Doyle, M.B. (2007). Teacher assistants in inclusive schools. In L. Florian (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of special education (pp. 429-439). London: Sage. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/Chpt32SAGEGiangrecoDoyle2007.pdf

Giangreco, M.F., & Doyle, M.B. (2004). Directing paraprofessional work. In C. Kennedy & E. Horn (Eds.), Including students with severe disabilities, (pp. 185-204). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/Chpt10DirectingPar.pdf

Giangreco, M.F., Halvorsen, A., Doyle, M.B., & Broer, S.M. (2004). Alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 17(2), 82-90. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/evolve/JSEL0417%282%2982-90.pdf

Giangreco, M. F., Hurley, S. M., & Suter, J.C. (2009). Personnel utilization and general class placement of students with disabilities: Ranges and ratios. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 47(1), 53-56. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/IDD09%2047%281%29%2053-56%20with%2

Giangreco, M.F., Smith, C.S., & Pinckney, E. (2006). Addressing the paraprofessional dilemma in an inclusive school: A program description. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(3). 215-229. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/rps31303.pdf

Giangreco, M. F., Suter, J. C., & Doyle, M. B. (2010). Paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: A review of recent research. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20, 41-57.

Hadadian A., & Yssel, N. (1998). Changing roles of paraeducators in early childhood special education. Infant-Toddler Intervention, 8(1), 1-9.

Hammeken, P. (2009). The paraprofessional’s essential guide to inclusive education (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Jones K.H., & Bender, W.N. (1993). Utilization of paraprofessionals in special education: A review of the literature. Remedial and Special Education, 14, 7-14.

This article is a literature review that concludes that the efficacy of paraeducator services has only been studied “indirectly” in terms of teacher satisfaction with paraeducators’ performance, rather than in terms measurable in student outcomes in classrooms. The authors suggest four variables could be examined: (1) student; outcomes (2) satisfaction of professionals who work with paraeducators; (3) satisfaction of paraeducators themselves; and (4) improved working conditions of professionals when paraeducators are employed.

Kraft, C. N., & Slater, A. E. (2009). One-to-one aides for students with autism: A practical and legal guide. Horsham, PA: LPR Publications.

Lawlor L., & Cregan, A. (2003). The evolving role of the special needs assistant: Towards a new synergy. REACH Journal of Special Needs Education in Ireland, 16(2), 82-93.

Lindsey J. D. (1983). Paraprofessionals in learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 476-472.

Liston, A. G., Nevin, A., & Malian, I. (2009). What do paraeducators in inclusive classrooms say about their work? Analysis of national survey data and follow-up interviews in California. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 5(5).

Margerison A. (1997). Class teachers and the role of classroom assistants in the delivery of special educational needs. Support for Learning, 12(4), 166-169.

Marks S., Schrader, C., & Levine, M. (1999). Paraeducator experiences in inclusive settings: Helping, hovering, or holding their own? Exceptional Children, 65, 315-328.

This study used in interviews with paraeducators to reveal intuitive home-grown attitudes about their roles, in the absence of role specification. Paraeducators believe it is their job to keep students with disabilities from bothering regular education teachers. They further believe that they are responsible for all aspects of a child’s education, that they have to create all modifications and adaptations for the child, and that they are responsible totally for the child.

Minondo S., Meyer, L.H., & Xin, J.F. (2001). The role and responsibilities of teaching assistants in inclusive education: What’s appropriate. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26, 114-119. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study describes a social validation of appropriate roles and responsibilities for teaching assistants (TAs) in inclusive classrooms using a self-report survey completed by general education teachers, special education teachers, and TAs. Factor analysis suggested five major role components including: instruction, school support, liaison, personal support, and one-to-one in-class support. The need to clarify TA job expectations is stressed. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (1999). Learning disabilities: Use of paraprofessionals. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 22(1), 23-30. http://www.google.com/#sclient=psy&hl=en&q=Learning+disabilities:+Use+of+para

Since its inception, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has embodied the concept of teams of professionals, often from different disciplines, working together to meet the needs of children and youth with disabilities and their families. In recent years the team concept has expanded to include paraprofessionals as members of these teams. The term “paraprofessional” is used in IDEA [Sec. 612(a) (15) (B) (iii)]. The term paraprofessional" is used in this document as an inclusive term applying to a group of resources and job titles (see the definition of paraprofessionals on p. 3).

Riggs C. G., & Mueller, P. H. (2001). Employment and utilization of paraeducators in inclusive settings. The Journal of Special Education, 35(1), 54-62. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study investigated paraeducators’ (N=758) experiences in inclusive educational settings, including administrative policies, job responsibilities, training, retention, and relationships with members of the school community. Findings indicated a need for more paraeducator training and the importance of relationships within the school. Recommendations are offered for policymakers, administrators, teachers, institutions of higher education, and paraeducators. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Suter, J. C., & Giangreco, M. F. (2009). Numbers that count: Exploring special education and paraprofessional service delivery in inclusion-oriented schools. Journal of Special Education, 43(2), 81-93. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study explores key indicators of special education service delivery based on responses from 92 special educators and 36 administrators in 19 Vermont schools. Special educators reported on their work, the work of paraprofessionals they supervised, and 103 students with disabilities who were receiving one-to-one paraprofessional supports within general education classes. Findings indicate that (a) many special educators have large caseloads, (b) there are substantially more paraprofessionals than special educators, and © more than half of all special education paraprofessionals are assigned to students with disabilities one-to-one. Combined, these factors indicate that schools employed models of service delivery for students with disabilities that are substantially supported by paraprofessionals, thus raising concerns about students’ access to a free, appropriate public education. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Veck, W. (2009). From an exclusionary to an inclusive understanding of educational difficulties and educational space: Implications for the learning support assistant’s role. Oxford Review of Education, 35(1), 41-56. http://pdfserve.informaworld.com/667668_751320213_788154242.pdf

This paper argues that before Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) can begin to contribute to the realisation of inclusive possibilities in and for education, critical attention must be given to the ways educational difficulties and space are considered and produced within educational institutions. A detailed study of a sixth form college in the south of England is drawn upon to elucidate the ways in which fixed and exclusionary perspectives on educational difficulties can entwine with prescriptive views of and approaches to educational space to marginalise LSAs and the students who received their support. Inclusive conceptualisations of both educational difficulties and space are developed to illuminate the potential of the LSAs to make unique and useful contributors to educational institutions.

Wadsworth D. E., Knight, D. (1996). Paraprofessionals: The bridge to successful full inclusion. Intervention in School and Clinic, 31(3), 166-171. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article offers six training suggestions for preparing paraprofessionals to work successfully with students having disabilities in an inclusive setting. These include providing preservice training through a centralized interdisciplinary training team, modeling the use of appropriate behavior management techniques, and communicating the importance of team collaboration. (DB)

Werts M. G., Wolery, M., Snyder, E., & Caldwell, N. (1996). Teachers’ perceptions of the supports critical to the success of inclusion programs. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 21(1), 9-21. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A survey of 164 Pennsylvania general and special education teachers and 1,430 elementary educators nationwide examined their attitudes concerning supports needed for the successful inclusion of students with disabilities. Teachers perceived a need for training, help from personnel outside the classroom, and in-class help such as paraprofessionals. (DB)

Wolery M., Martin, C.G., Schroeder, C., Huffman, K., Venn, M.L., Holcombe, A., Brookfield, J., & Fleming, L. (1994). Employment of educators in preschool mainstreaming: A survey of general early educators. Journal of Early Intervention, 18(1), 64-77. http://jei.sagepub.com/content/18/1/64.full.pdf

This report describes a mail survey designed (a) to identify the extent to which various types of educators (paraprofessionals, early childhood educators, elementary school educators, and special educators) were employed in early education programs and (b to describe patterns in that employment. Respondents represented a variety of programs (Head Start, public school prekindergarten, public school kindergarten, and community preschool/child care) and were selected randomly from the nine U.S. Bureau of the Census regions. The results indicate that (a) higher percentages of programs employed full-time rather than part-time paraprofessional and professional staff; (b) higher percentages of Head Start programs employed paraprofessionals, particularly Child-Development- Associate-degree staff, than did other program types, and the lowest percentage of employment of paraprofessionals occurred in public school kindergarten programs; © more mainstreamed programs employed paraprofessionals than did nonmainstreamed programs, but the differences were slight; (d) higher percentages of programs employed bachelor’s-degree teachers; (e) nearly equal percentages of programs employed elementary teachers as employed early childhood teachers, and fewer programs employed special education teachers; and (f) about three fourths of the mainstreamed programs did not employ special education teachers.

Paraeducators and Parents

Chopra, R., (2009). What do parents need to know about paraeducators? Exceptional Parent, 39(9), 22-23.

Paraeducators are now recognized as important members of the learning and teaching team alongside teachers and other professional educators in schools. Other commonly used titles for paraeducators are Paraprofessional, Instructional Assistant, Educational Assistant, Teaching Assistant, Instructional Aide, and Aide. This article provides useful information about appropriate utilization of paraeducators to ensure quality education for children with disabilities. The article covers the answers to some of the questions that exceptional parents frequently ask with regards to paraeducators.

Chopra R. V., & French, N. K. (2004). Paraeducator relationships with parents of students with significant disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 240-251. http://rse.sagepub.com/content/25/4/240.short

This study examined the relationships between parents of students with significant disabilities and paraeducators who supported the students in inclusive educational settings. Results revealed five types of relationships between parents and paraeducators: close and personal friendship, routine limited interactions, routine extended interactions, tense relationship, and minimal relationship. Results indicated that it is important for paraeducators and parents to communicate because paraeducators spend more time with the students and gain insight into their academic and social behaviors. However, for paraeducator—parent relationships to be beneficial in the students’ education, they must remain within the limits and boundaries established by the teacher.

Doyle M. B. (1998). My child has a new shadow and it doesn’t resemble her! Disability Solutions, 3(1), 5-9.

This article is addressed to parents. The author suggests they ask why the teacher plans programs for children with without disabilities, but the paraeducator has the sole responsibility for the program of their child with a disability.

French N.K., & Chopra, R. (1999). Parent perspectives on the roles of paraprofessionals. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 259-272. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/french4.html

Parents of children with severe handicaps receiving special education services in general classrooms were interviewed in focus groups about their perceptions of paraprofessionals who worked with their children. Mother’s had close bonds with paraprofessionals and identified with them. They believed that they were extremely dedicated people who worked with their children in caring and compassionate ways. Four roles emerged that the parents viewed the paraprofessionals fulfilling for their children. Those were a team member with the other educational professionals who served their children, a connector between home and school, a teacher, and a health care provider. Parents were also aware of issues/problems of paraeducators that have been identified on other literature. Specifically those were low pay, inadequate training, lack of respect, and high turnover. Interestingly, the issue of most concern was that of respect. Parents believed that lack of respect shown paraeducators reflected a lack of respect for their children.

Haas E.M. (1996). Necessity: The mother of intervention. A parent’s recommendation for the preparation and use of speech-language paraprofessionals in education settings. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 111-114. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/haas.html

This article describes the experiences and perspectives of one mother of a 12-year old daughter who is “medically fragile” and has "profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. After describing her daughter’s medical history, the author describes her daughter’s educational program (which is primarily homebound in rural regions of the country), and the family’s experiences with speech-language paraprofessionals. She discusses her own experiences providing unpaid speech-language paraprofessional services to her daughter as well her experience as a consumer of speech-language paraprofessional services. Given appropriate selection and training, the author advocates for the use of speech-language paraprofessionals as an appropriate option for serving homebound students with severe medical complications.

Mueller P.H. (2002). The paraeducator paradox. Exceptional Parent, 32(9), 64-67. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/mueller2.html

This article discusses the problems facing many paraeducators today – the fact that many of them are untrained and underpaid, yet are expected to provide instruction to the most complex or challenging students. The author discusses many factors in this discrepancy, including: role confusion, poor supervision, inadequate performance evaluation, lack of respect, and overuse. The author then offers possible solutions, or “promising practices”, to solve the paradox. While the article is directed towards parents, other people in the educational community may accomplish these solutions as well. They include: parent participation in the hiring process, developing comprehensive job descriptions, creation of relevant orientation and professional development, providing adequate supervision and ongoing support, developing an appropriate evaluation system, valuing the paraeducator as a part of the team, developing a process for determining when and if paraeducator support is necessary, and reviewing staff assignments.

Werts M.G., Harris, S., Tillery, C.Y., Roark, R. (2004). What parents tell us about paraeducators. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 232-239. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/werts3.html

This qualitative study included interviews with 28 parents (27 were mothers) regarding their perceptions of 24 different paraeducators who provided educational supports to their 28 children. These children included 22 boys and six girls, ages 4-12, with mild to moderate disabilities enrolled in inclusive classrooms in public schools in North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Oregon. Two interviews were conducted in person, the remaining 26 by telephone. Seventy-one percent of the students received one-to-one paraeducator support, the remaining 29% had classroom/group support from paraeducators. Prior to the parent interviews each paraeducator-student dyad was observed on 3 different days for one hour each day. Based on these observations, graphs were generated for each child indicating various aspects of the time and interactions (e.g., instructional grouping, types of interactions in the classroom, proximity). Each parent received a graph pertaining to his or her child prior to the interview (these observational data were not reported in this particular study; they will be discussed in a subsequent article).

Paraeducators and Students

Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., Brown, P., & Webster, R. (2009). The effect of support staff on pupil engagement and individual attention. British Educational Research Journal, 35(5), 661-686. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a911011596~frm=titlel

Despite an unprecedented increase in classroom-based support staff, there are confusing messages about their appropriate deployment and a lack of systematic evidence on their impact. This article addresses the deployment and impact on pupil engagement and individual attention of support staff, commonly known as teaching assistants (TAs), in terms of: (1) a comparison between TAs and teachers; (2) differences between pupils with and without special educational needs (SEN); and (3) differences between primary and secondary schools. Systematic observations of pupil behaviour in 49 primary and secondary schools showed that support staff presence resulted in increased individualisation of attention and overall teaching, easier classroom control, and that pupils showed more engagement and a more active role in interaction with adults. This supports teachers’ positive view of support staff, but their presence also meant pupils’ contact with teachers declined and at secondary level there was less individual and active interactions between teachers and pupils.

Boomer L. W. (1994). The utilization of paraprofessionals in programs for students with autism. Focus On Autistic Behavior, 9(2), 1-9. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/boomer.html

This article points out that paraprofessionals have been involved in serving students with disabilities for nearly two centuries (documented since the work of Itard). It traces some of the historical changes in the roles of paraprofessionals to the present day. The article describes three roles of paraprofessionals, particularly as they relate to students with disabilities. These include the paraprofessional as: (a) “Data Manager”, (b) “Integration Facilitator”, and © “Functional Skills Facilitator”. Secondly, the article discusses three “current myths regarding the roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals in light of changing service delivery systems” (p.2). These myths are identified as: Myth 1: “Students with autism require constant, one-to-one supervision by a paraprofessional” Myth 2: “Paraprofessionals should be able to work independently” Myth 3: “The paraprofessional will make the special education teacher’s job easier”

Broer S. M., Doyle, M. B., & Giangreco, M. F. (2005) Perspectives of students with intellectual disabilities about their experiences with paraprofessional support. Exceptional Children, 71(4), 415-430.

This article report on a research study that interviewed young adults about their perception of the paraeducator support they had received while in high school. The study found that paraeducators were viewed both positively and negatively in four roles: (1) mother; (2) friend; (3) protector from bullying; and (4) primary teacher. The authors state that each role is a cause for concern and they provide recommendations for schools to minimize these effects increasing teacher involvement, listening to students with disabilities and including them more in decisions about their support needs.

Byers-Kirsch, J. (2009, March). Idaho’s design for paraeducator effectiveness. The School Administrator, 66(3), 40-41. Full Text PDF available.

Carter, E. W., Cushing, L. S., Clark, N. M., & Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Effects of peer support interventions on students’ access to the general curriculum and social interactions. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(1), 15-25. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Peer support interventions are emerging as an effective alternative to traditional paraprofessional models for assisting students with moderate to severe disabilities to access the general curriculum. To contribute to the refinement of peer support interventions, we evaluated the impact of altering the number of participating peers on the social and academic outcomes of students with and without disabilities. Our findings indicated that changes in the configuration of peer support arrangements differentially affected student outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of social interaction and contact with the general curriculum were observed when students with disabilities worked with two peers relative to one peer. The additive benefits of a second peer provide guidance to educators concerning the implementation of peer support interventions in inclusive classrooms. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

Carter, E. W., & Pesko, M. J. (2008). Social validity of peer interaction intervention strategies in high school classrooms: Effectiveness, feasibility, and actual use. Exceptionality, 16(3) 156-173. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/carter08b.html

Promoting social interaction among students with severe disabilities and their general education peers has long been a prominent focus of research and policy efforts. We asked 81 educators to evaluate the effectiveness, feasibility, and actual use of 12 intervention strategies for increasing social interaction among high school students with and without severe disabilities. Although considerable variability was evident across individual strategies, general educators, special educators, and paraprofessionals generally shared similar views regarding the acceptability of these strategies. Recommendations for developing socially valid interventions for transition-age youth are discussed.

Causton-Theoharis, J. & Burdick, C. (2008). Paraprofessionals: Gatekeepers to authentic art production. Studies in Art Education, 49(3), 167-182. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Paraprofessionals are increasingly utilized in inclusive art classrooms to support the art production of students with disabilities. For this descriptive qualitative study, we observed 18 paraprofessionals across elementary, middle, and high school inclusive art classrooms in Central New York. The findings suggest that these support staff act as gatekeepers, either denying or allowing access to authentic art production by facilitating or impeding access to the art curriculum. Implications for practicing art teachers and art teacher preparation programs are included. (Contains 2 figures, 1 table and 1 footnote.)

Causton-Theoharis J.N., & Malmgren, K.W. (2005). Building bridges: Strategies to help paraprofessionals promote peer interactions. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(6), 18-24. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/carter.html

Peer support interventions are emerging as an effective alternative to traditional paraprofessional models for assisting students with moderate to severe disabilities to access the general curriculum. To contribute to the further refinement of peer support interventions, we evaluated the impact of altering the number of participating peers on the social and academic outcomes of students with and without disabilities. Our findings indicated that changes in the configuration of peer support arrangements differentially impacted student outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of social interaction and contact with the general curriculum were observed when students with disabilities worked with two peers, relative to one peer. The additive benefits of a second peer provide guidance to educators concerning the implementation of peer support interventions in inclusive classrooms.

Conroy, P. W. (2008). Paraprofessionals and students with visual impairments: Potential pitfalls and solutions. Re:View, 39(2), 43-55. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The use of paraprofessionals in all areas of special education has grown tremendously in the past decade (N. French, 2003). For the student with a visual impairment in the general education classroom to receive 1-to-1 assistance from a paraprofessional has become almost automatic (E. Forster & C. Holbrook, 2005). Although well-intentioned, this 1-to-1 assistance has had negative effects on the educational and social independence of students. The author discusses the pros and cons of assigning paraprofessionals to work in the general education classroom with students who are visually impaired and presents training, supervision, and peer support models as potential solutions to the problems that may arise from overreliance on paraprofessionals. The author also provides resources for further information.

Cushing L. S., Clark, N., Carter, E. W., & Kennedy, C. H. (2003). Peer supports and access to the general education curriculum. TASH Connections, 29(10), 8-11. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/PeerSupport.pdf

Ernsperger L.A. (1998, Summer). Using a paraeducator to facilitate school reentry. Reaching Today’s Youth: Community Circle of Caring Journal, 2(4), 9-12. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/ernsperger.html

This article tells the story of a paraeducator’s successful role in supporting an adolescent who returned to his home school following a residential placement. The story is told through the eyes of the school’s behavioral consultant and describes activities related to training, strategies for reducing dependence, and lessons learned from the experience. The author sites research that reports a high failure rate among students with severe behavioral and learning problems who return from residential placements to their neighborhood schools. The article concludes with an argument for more effective utilization of paraeducators to increase the success rate for students returning from residential placements.

Erwin E. (1996). Meaningful participation in early childhood general education: Exploring the use of natural supports and adaptive strategies. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 90, 400-411. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/erwin.html

Findings: Provision of context cues, use of spontaneous events for teaching, verbal directions and feedback by staff, cues and feedback by peers as modeled by staff, and individual student-generated strategies such as use of familiar landmarks & signals served as successful natural support strategies for an inclusive preschool. “Hands-off” approach was emphasized meaning support was provided in nonintrusive ways and only when needed.

French N. K. & Lock, R.H., (2002). Maximize paraprofessional services for students with learning disabilities. Interventions in Schools and Clinic, 38(1), 50-55. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Twenty suggestions are provided for helping teachers to become more effective managers of paraprofessionals and to improve the ways paraprofessionals work with students with learning disabilities. These include: provide orientation; find out what the paraprofessionals’ work-style preferences are; assess the skills of the paraprofessional; observe and coach the paraprofessional; and delegate skillfully. (Contains 1 reference.) (CR)

Gerber S.B., Finn, J.D., Achilles, C.M., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2001). Teacher aides and students’ academic achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(2), 123-143.

This article is based on a reanalysis of the Tennessee STAR report with regard to its findings on aides. It states that aides have no effect on students test scores and that students benefit academically if aides perform only clerical tasks. They do concede that it is also possible that teacher aides may provide important attention and support to specific students. This may be reflected in those students’ test scores, but not affect the class as a whole. It provides recommendations for courses of action and future research.

Giangreco M. F., Edelman, S. W., Broer, S. M., & Doyle, M. B. (2001). Paraprofessional support of students with disabilities: Literature from the past decade. Exceptional Children, 67(1), 45-63. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/EC01%2068%281%29,%2045-63.pdf

This article summarizes and analyzes a set of 43 pieces of professional literature pertaining to paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities published between 1991 and early 2000. Twenty-six nondatabased sources and 17 research studies were included. The findings identify topical gaps in the literature, review the major databased findings, and present implications for the field. The review concludes with suggestions for future research that emphasize the need for more student outcome data, conceptual alignment of roles, training, and supervision, and the exploration of alternatives to paraprofessional supports.

Giangreco M.F., Broer, S.M., & Edelman, S.W. (2002). “That was then, this is now!” Paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptionality, 10(1), 47-64. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/EX02%2010%281%29%2047-64.pdf

Increasingly, paraprofessionals are being employed to support a wide array of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. This descriptive study, based on quantitative and qualitative data from 215 school personnel in 4 schools, provides a portrait of issues and concerns about paraprofessional supports that have implications for other schools. In addition to demographic and quantitative information about paraprofessionals’ roles, the study presents 7 themes based on interviews and observations in the schools. Each of the themes addresses a different aspect of the evolution of paraprofessionals services in these 4 schools. The 7 themes address (a) increases in paraprofessional services, (b) hiring challenges, © turnover, (d) paraprofessional role shift to instruction, (e) paraprofessional assignments, (f) insufficient training, and (g) academic skillfulness concerns. The study concludes with practical implications for schools and suggestions for future research, which focus on student outcomes.

Giangreco M.F., Broer, S.M., & Edelman, S.W. (2001). Teacher engagement with students with disabilities: Differences based on paraprofessional service delivery models. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26, 75-86. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study describes differences in teacher engagement identified within two approaches to providing paraprofessional supports in general education classrooms, program-based and one-on-one. Analysis of observed and reported experiences of 103 school personnel from four schools identified characteristics of teacher engagement and disengagement, involvement of special educators, and phenomena associated with teacher disengagement when one-on-one paraprofessional service delivery was used. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Giangreco M. F., Broer S. M., & Edelman, S. W. (1999). The tip of the iceberg: Determining whether paraprofessional support is needed for students with disabilities in general education settings. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 280-290. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

After presenting selected issues associated with employing paraprofessionals, this article extends the discussion on paraprofessional issues by exploring guidelines to assist teams in making decisions about paraprofessional supports. This includes both considerations for the appropriate use of paraprofessionals when assigned, as well as alternative support solutions. (Author/CR)

Giangreco M.F., Cichoski-Kelly, E., Backus, L., Edelman, S., Broer, S., CichoskiKelly, C., & Spinney, P. (1999, March). Developing a shared understanding: Paraeducator supports for students with disabilities in general education. TASH Newsletter, 25(1), 21-23.

Giangreco M.F. & Doyle, M.B. (2002). Students with disabilities and paraprofessional supports: Benefits, balance, and band-aids. Focus on Exceptional Children, 34 (7), 1-12. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/giangreco5.html

Following a review of current paraprofessional literature and issues, this article addresses five contemporary questions that are within the sphere of control of school personnel, either individually or collectively, to improve paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities

For each question, pertinent information from the literature is offered as well as implications for practice. In an interrelated fashion these five questions address the benefits associated with well-conceived paraprofessional supports and the balance of paraprofessional supports with supports provided by others (e.g., classroom teachers, special educators, related services providers, peers). This is set within a context that challenges the reader to consider whether our existing or proposed actions to improve paraprofessional supports offer viable solutions that truly accomplish what we intend for students with disabilities or whether they are merely band-aids.

Giangreco M.F., Edelman, S.W., & Broer, S.M. (2001). Respect, appreciation, and acknowledgement of paraprofessionals who support students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 67, 485-498. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/archives/mgiangre/EC01_67-4_485-498.pdf

This article describes the experiences of 103 school personnel, including classroom teachers, paraprofessionals, special educators, and administrators who worked in four schools, Grades K-12. Data were collected during 22 school visits and 56 individual interviews. Six themes were identified pertaining to how school personnel think about and act upon, issues of respect, appreciation, and acknowledgment of paraprofessionals who work in general education classrooms supporting students with and without disabilities. The themes included (a) nonmonetary signs and symbols of appreciation, (b) compensation, © being entrusted with important responsibilities, (d) noninstructional responsibilities, (e) wanting to be listened to, and (f) orientation and support. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for how these data might be applied in schools.

Giangreco M.F., Edelman, S., Luiselli, T.E., & MacFarland, S.Z.C. (1997). Helping or hovering? Effects of instructional assistant proximity on students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64, 7-18. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/helpinghovering.pdf

This study presents data on the effects of the proximity of instructional assistants on students with multiple disabilities who are placed in general education classrooms. Based on extensive observations and interviews, analyses of the data highlighted eight major findings of educational significance, all related to proximity of instructional assistants. Categories of findings and discussion include (a) interference with ownership and responsibility by general educators, (b) separation from classmates, © dependence on adults, (d) impact on peer interactions, (e) limitations on receiving competent instruction, (f ) loss of personal control, (g) loss of gender identity, and (h) interference with instruction of other students. The article concludes with implications for practice related to policy development, training, classroom practices, and research.

Giangreco M.F., Yuan, S., McKenzie, B., Cameron, P., & Fialka, J. (2005). "Be careful what you wish for…” Five reasons to be concerned about the assignment of individual paraprofessionals. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(5), 28-34.

Granger, J. D. & Grek, M. (2005). Struggling readers stretch their skills: Project maximizes use of paraprofessionals to teach reading. Journal of Staff Development, 26(3), 32-36. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

In Florida, a group of paraprofessionals worked with students struggling to read at grade level. The students’ gains show that the intensive attention of these professionals to small groups of students can make a significant difference. This article presents a study about the effectiveness of paraprofessionals’ and teachers’ instruction for at-risk 1st graders. Thus, the study found that these 1st graders gained literacy skills when: (1) Participating paraprofessionals were carefully selected; (2) Paraprofessionals used an explicit research-based curriculum; and (3) The paraprofessionals took part in high-quality professional development.

Hall L.J., & Macvean, M.L. (1997). Increases in the communicative behaviors of students with cerebral palsy as a result of feedback to, and the selection of goals by, paraprofessionals. Behaviour Change, 14(3), 174-184. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/hall2.html

“Baseline observations revealed that the participating paraprofessionals rarely used prompts or set the occasion for the use of communication behaviours by the students with spastic quadriplegic cerebral palsy). Following intervention, or the selection of the type of prompting strategies and feedback on the frequency and effectiveness of their use of these strategies, all four paraprofessionals increased their level of prompting and, in general, met their self-selected goals. In addition, the target behaviours of all 3 students increased markedly after the introduction of the intervention.” (p. 182). Using a 5-point Likert-type scale, all integration assistants agreed or strongly agreed that “involvement in this research: (a) improved their abilities to facilitate communication skills of the students, (b) increased their confidence in their abilities to communicate with the student, and © increased the student’s ability to communicate.” (p. 182).

Hemmingsson H., Borell, L., & Gustavsson, A. (2003). Participation in school: School assistants creating opportunities and obstacles for pupils with disabilities. Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 23(3), 88-98. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A study of 7 pupils aged 7-15 with physical disabilities found that school assistants could both facilitate and hinder student participation. Results suggest the need for awareness of priorities students place on social participation to ensure that effective and flexible support is available to students with disabilities. (Contains 42 references.) (JOW)

Hill C. (2003) The role of instructional assistants in regular classrooms: Are they influencing inclusive practices? Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 49(1), 98-100. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Observations were carried out in 10 regular elementary classrooms in Winnipeg (Manitoba) in which instructional assistants were assigned to students with severe disabilities for at least 2.5 hours per day. Instructional assistants were found to facilitate inclusive practices by interacting with regular and special education students together, providing support to whole-class activities, and promoting the independence of exceptional students. (SV)

Jenkins J.R., Vadasy, P.F., Firebaugh, M., & Profilet, C. (2000). Tutoring first-grade struggling readers in phonological reading skills. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 75-84. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Description of a tutoring program for struggling 1st grade readers focuses on use of Sound Partners, a program designed for non-teacher tutors. This program emphasizes basic phonological awareness and phonological reading skills. The article describes the program’s theoretical ancestry, application, research outcomes, and obstacles/solutions related to implementation. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Kotkin R. A. (1995). The Irvine paraprofessional program: Using paraprofessionals in serving students with ADHD. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30(4), 235-240.http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true

This article presents a rationale for inclusion of students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in regular classrooms; identifies current problems with inclusive practices; and offers a model program, the Irvine Paraprofessional Program. This program focuses on the use of paraprofessional teacher assistants, inservice training on behavior modification, use of a token economy, and social skills training. (DB)Lacey, P. (2001). The role of learning support assistants in the inclusive learning of pupils with severe and profound learning difficulties.

Lacey P. (2001). The role of learning support assistants in the inclusive learning of pupils with severe and profound learning difficulties. Educational Review, 53(2), 157-167.

Logan, A., (2006). The role of the special needs assistant supporting pupils with special educational needs in Irish mainstream primary schools. Support for Learning, 21(2), 92-99. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

In this article the author describes a small-scale study into the role of the special needs assistant (SNA) supporting the inclusion of pupils with learning difficulties in the Irish Republic. The findings regarding the perspectives of teachers, principals, SNAs, pupils supported by SNAs and their parents on the support offered to three pupils are also described. The actual (as distinct from the prescribed) role of SNAs, including the issue of SNAs working in a general rather than a pupil-specific capacity, and the nature of the SNA-teacher relationship are discussed. The main findings emerging from the data were that the role of the SNA is one of both education and care and that SNAs are a welcome support for inclusion. Issues emerging from the study include the need for effective communication and planning, shared understanding of the role and responsibilities of SNAs and ongoing monitoring of the way in which support is provided.

Malmgren, K.W., & Causton-Theoharis, J.N. (2006). Boy in the bubble: Effects of paraprofessional proximity and other pedagogical decisions on the interactions of a student with behavior disorders. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20(4), 301-312. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Peer interactions are a critical component of learning; however, students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) are at particular risk of social isolation at school. As students with EBD are increasingly included in general education settings, a better understanding of what affects their interactions is needed. In this qualitative study, structured observations and semi-structured interviews were used to gain an understanding of how specific classroom environmental and pedagogical decisions (i.e., instructional groupings, overall classroom environment, task structure, and proximity of adults) affected the peer interactions of a 2nd-grade student with EBD who was educated in an inclusive classroom with the support of a full-time paraprofessional. Analysis revealed that close physical proximity of the paraprofessional significantly impeded the number of interactions experienced by the student. (Contains 1 table.)

Martella R.C., Marchand-Martella, N.E., Miller, T.L., Young, K.R., & Macfarlane, C.A. (1995). Teaching instructional aides and peer tutors to decrease problem behaviors in the classroom. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27(2), 53-56. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article describes a systematic program that special education teachers can use to teach instructional aides and peer tutors to use effective teaching practices. The article specifically focuses on delivering appropriate instructional commands, providing specific praise, and using appropriate error correction procedures. (JDD)

McDonnell J., Johnson, J. W., Polychronis, S., & Risen, T. (2002). Effects of embedded instruction on students with moderate disabilities enrolled in general education classes. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 37(4), 363-377. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Four students with moderate mental retardation were taught to read or define words on vocabulary lists of general education classes using embedded instruction. Results indicate that embedded instruction led to the acquisition and maintenance of the target skills. Paraprofessionals successfully implemented the embedded instruction in general education classes. (Contains references.) (Author/PB)

Miller S. D. (2003). Partners-in-reading: Using classroom assistants to provide tutorial assistance to struggling first-grade readers. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 8 (3), 333-349. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Evaluated the feasibility of using classroom assistants to tutor 1st-grade struggling readers in a school with limited financial and personal resources. Comparison of intervention students, students in traditional tutoring, and control students indicated that, although equivalent at the year’s start, both intervention groups outperformed the control group at the end of the year, and students with classroom assistants outperformed the other two groups on reading comprehension. (SM)

Mueller P.H., & Murphy, F.V. (2001). Determining when a student requires paraeducator support. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33 (6), 22-27. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article outlines the rationale for developing a process to help Individualized Education Program teams determine when to assign paraeducators to support students with disabilities in general education classrooms. It describes a formal, decision-making model, its benefits, and its effects. A needs checklist and assistance matrix is provided. (Contains nine references.) (CR)

Robertson K., Chamberlain, B., Kasari, C. (2003). General education teachers’ relationship with included students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(2), 123-130. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A study involving 187 children from second- and third-grade inclusive classrooms, 12 with autism, and 12 general education teachers, found included students with autism formed multidimensional relationships with their general education teachers. These relationships were associated with student’s display of behavior problems and level of inclusion in the class. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Rossetti, Z. S. & Goesling, D.P. (2010). Paraeducators’ roles in facilitating friendships between secondary students with and without autism spectrum disorders or developmental disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(6), 64-70. http://www.eric.ed.gov.proxy.lib.wayne.edu/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.js

Much has been written on the roles and responsibilities of paraeducators in inclusive classrooms related to instruction, behavioral support, and their supervision by general and special educators. Paraeducators are defined as school support staff who work under the direction of a certified teacher and assist students with instruction, social/emotional/behavioral skills and sometimes personal care. Paraeducators are also known by terms such as teacher assistant, aide and paraprofessional. Few authors have focused primarily on the specific opportunities for paraeducators to help facilitate friendships between students without disabilities and students labeled with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or other developmental disabilities, especially at the high school level. This article reviews several strategies and specific considerations for their systematic implementation that were observed by the authors and used successfully by paraeducators in multiple high school settings.

Rubie-Davies, C. M., Blatchford, P., Webster, R., Koutsoubou, M., & Bassett, P. (2010). Enhancing learning? A comparison of teacher and teaching assistant interactions with pupils. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/09243453.2010.512800

Rutherford, G. (2009). Curriculum matters for all students? Understanding curriculum from the perspective of disabled students and teacher aides. Curriculum Matters, 5, 90-107.

Schenker, R., Coster, W., & Parush, S. (2006) Personal assistance, adaptations, and participation in students with cerebral palsy mainstreamed in elementary schools. Disability and Rehabilitation, 28, 1061-1069.

Shukla S., Kennedy, C.H., & Cushing, L.S. (1999). Intermediate school students with severe disabilities: Supporting their education in general education classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(3), 130-140.

Skar L., & Tamm, M. (2001). My assistant and I: Disabled children’s and adolescents’ roles and relationships to their assistants. Disability and Society, 16, 917-931.

Vadasy P.F., Sanders, E.A., Jenkins, J.R., & Peyton, J.A. (2002). Timing and intensity of tutoring: A closer look at the conditions for effective early literacy tutoring. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 17(4), 227-241. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A study compared students at risk for reading disabilities who were provided phonics-based instruction in first grade (n=13), students tutored in comprehension skills in second grade (n=10), and students tutored in both grades (n=26). Students tutored only in first grade performed better than those also tutored in second grade. (Contains references.) (CR)

Vadasy, P.F., Jenkins, J.R., & Poole, K. (2000). Effects of tutoring in phonological and early reading skills on students at risk for reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 579-590. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Twenty-three first-graders at risk for learning disabilities received one-to-one tutoring from noncertified tutors for 30 minutes, 4 days a week, for one school year. Tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, explicit decoding, writing, spelling, and reading phonically controlled text. Participants significantly outperformed controls on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Vadasy, P.F., Jenkins, J.R., Antil, L. R., Wayne, S.K., & O’Connor, R. E. (1997). The effectiveness of one-to-one tutoring by community tutors for at-risk beginning readers. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 20, 126-139. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Twenty at-risk first graders received 30 minutes of individual instruction from community tutors four days a week for up to 23 weeks. Subjects outperformed the control group on all reading, decoding, spelling and segmenting, and writing measures. Tutors who implemented the program with a high degree of fidelity achieved significant effect sizes in each reading skill area. (Author/DB)

Vadasy, P.F., Jenkins, J.R., Antil, L. R., Wayne, S.K., & O’Connor, R. E. (1997). Community-based early reading intervention for at-risk first graders. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 12, 29-39. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A study of 17 first-graders identified at high risk for a reading disability investigated the effects of community tutors on reading performance. When compared to the performance of matched controls, the children performed better on spelling and segmentation but not on reading. Skills declined at the second-grade follow-up evaluation. (CR)

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Peyton, J.A. (2006). Code-oriented instruction for kindergarten students at risk for reading difficulties: A randomized field trial with paraeducator implementers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 508-528. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of code-oriented supplemental instruction for kindergarten students at risk for reading difficulties. Paraeducators were trained to provide 18 weeks of explicit instruction in phonemic skills and the alphabetic code. Students identified by their teachers meeting study eligibility criteria were randomly assigned to 2 groups: individual supplemental instruction and control. Students were pretested in December, midtested, and posttested in May-June of kindergarten. At posttest, treatment students significantly outperformed controls on measures of reading accuracy, reading efficiency, oral reading fluency, and developmental spelling. Treatment students had significantly higher linear growth rates in phonemic awareness and alphabetic knowledge during the kindergarten treatment. At a 1-year follow-up, significant group differences remained in reading accuracy and efficiency. Ethical challenges of longitudinal intervention research are discussed. Findings have policy implications for making supplemental instruction in critical early reading skills available.

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Peyton, J.A. (2006). Paraeducator-supplemented instruction in structural analysis with text reading practice for second and third graders at risk for reading problems. Remedial and Special Education, 27(6), 365-378. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Two studies – one quasi-experimental and one randomized experiment – were designed to evaluate the effectiveness of supplemental instruction in structural analysis and oral reading practice for second – and third-grade students with below-average word reading skills. Individual instruction was provided by trained paraeducators in single- and multiletter phoneme-grapheme correspondences; structural analysis of inflected, affixed, and multi-syllable words; exception word reading; and scaffolded oral reading practice. Both studies revealed short-term word level and fluency effects.

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Peyton, J.A. (2005). Contributions of reading practice to first-grade supplemental tutoring: How text matters. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 364-380. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/vadasy-2005.html

This quasi-experimental study examined the relative effectiveness of time allocated to either intensive decoding instruction or oral text reading practice in phonics based tutoring sessions. Subjects were 57 first graders who scored in the lowest quartile in reading skills at pretest in fall of grade one. Subjects were matched on a pretest composite to form equal groups: reading practice, word study, and controls. Paraeducator tutors were trained to provide individual instruction in one of the treatments. Treatment students were tutored for 30 min a day, 4 days a week for an average 44 hours of instruction. Mean fidelity ratings based on an average of 20 observations per tutor were 95% for both treatments. Tutored students in both treatment groups significantly outperformed controls at posttest in reading accuracy, reading comprehension, passage reading fluency, and spelling. The reading practice group performed significantly higher at posttest in passage reading fluency (rate) and accuracy, supporting the benefits of oral reading practice in combination with explicit phonics instruction.

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Tudor, S. (2007). Effectiveness of paraeducator-supplemented individual instruction: Beyond basic decoding skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(6), 508-525.

Walter, U. M. Petr, C. G. (2006). Lessons from the research on paraprofessionals for attendant care in children’s mental health. Community Mental Health Journal, 42(5), 459-475.

Watkins S., Clark, T., Strong, C., & Barringer, D. (1994). The effectiveness of an intervener model of services for young deaf-blind children. American Annals of the Deaf, 139 (4), 404-409. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/watkins.html

“This article discusses a naturalistic approach to providing developmental, home-based services for young children who are deaf-blind. Simply stated, this approach is patterned after the one-to-one services provided by Annie Sullivan to Helen Keller. The services are called the Intervener Model” (p. 404). “The Intervener Model focuses on a paraprofessional called an intervener who provides services to infants and young children who are deaf-blind and their families” (p. 404). The model was develop by the SKI*HI Institute in Utah. After additional description of the Intervener Model the remainder of the article provides a brief summary of four studies: (1) the development of children who are deaf-blind who receive intervener services, (2) intervener effects on communication and self-stimulation behaviors of deaf-blind children, (3) comparison of children and parents who did and did not receive intervener services, and (4) qualitative effects of the intervener on service recipients. In the article’s summary, the authors state " The services of interveners in Utah enabled young children who are deaf-blind to make greater developmental progress during the services than before and to make greater developmental gains than would have been expected due to maturation alone." (p 409).

Welch M., Richards, G., Okada, T., Richards, J., & Prescott, S. (1995). A consultation and paraprofessional pull-in system of service delivery: A report on student outcomes and teacher satisfaction. Remedial and Special Education, 16(1), 16-28. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article presents results of evaluation of an educational partnership approach, the Consultation and Paraprofessional Pull-In System (CAPPS), for serving at-risk students and those with mild academic disabilities. The program synthesizes the resource/consulting teacher role, pull-in programming, and utilization of paraprofessionals for service delivery. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation findings are detailed. (Author/DB)

Werts M.G., Zigmond, N., & Leeper, D.C. (2001) Paraprofessional proximity and academic engagement: Students with disabilities in primary aged classrooms. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 36(4). 424-440. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A study involving three students (ages 7-9) with severe disabilities found they were academically engaged during a significantly higher number of intervals when a paraprofessional was positioned close to the student. Students and paraprofessionals were more likely to be verbally interactive than physically when the student was actively academically engaged. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Young B., Simpson, R., Smith Myles, B., and Kamps, D.M. (1997). An examination of paraprofessional involvement in supporting students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 12(1), 31-38, 48. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study investigated paraeducator proximity to students with autism in general education classrooms. They found that the teacher initiated contact with student most when paraeducator was more than 2 ft. away from students or when out of the room, but initiated contact with student less than 1% of the time when paraeducator was closer than 2 ft. away. However, paraeducators initiated no interactions with student 75% of the observed time. In fact, 82% of the time no one initiated contact. The use of gestures or cueing was observed less than 1% of the time – a problem because all students had difficulty with verbal directions and needed cues and prompts. In spite of this, students were on task appropriate amounts of time – most often when working with a peer. Their conclusion was that maybe the most appropriate role of the paraeducator with children with autism is to facilitate peer interaction.

Zabel, T. A., Gray, R. M., Gardner, J., & Ackerman, J. (2005). Use of school-based one-to-one aides for children following traumatic brain injury: A proposed practice model. Physical Disabilities: Education and Related Services 24(1), 5-22. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

One-to-one aides can be an important intervention resource for the reintegration of children into school following traumatic brain injury (TBI). School-based one-to-one aides are typically paraprofessionals assigned to monitor children with TBI throughout the school day. This intervention allows for a continuous feedback and reinforcement schedule to address problematic behavior. Potential drawbacks of this resource, however, include cost, role confusion, and increased dependence upon the one-to-one aide to maintain classroom functioning. Intervention models and goal-planning strategies are needed to help ensure that one-to-one aides intervene in a cost-effective, time-limited manner that contribute to the reacquisition of functional classroom skills as well as decreased reliance upon the one-to-one aide for behavioral control. We present a model for conceptualizing the use of one-to-one aides in the classroom, and discuss intervention strategies to address common problems observed in children following TBI. This model is based upon our combined experience in school reentry following TBI as well as a current understanding of executive functioning, with an emphasis on addressing potential needs in behavioral regulation and goal-directed action. Additionally, general guidelines for the utilization of one-to-one aide in the classroom are proposed. (Contains 6 figures.)

Paraeducator Supervision

Carnahan, C. R., Williamson, P., Clarke, L., & Sorensen, R. (2009). A systematic approach for supporting paraeducators in educational settings: A guide for teachers. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41(5), 34-43. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Paraeducators provide important support and instruction to children in educational settings. As classroom leaders, general education and special education teachers must provide quality supervision and professional development for the paraeducators working in their classrooms. Despite the infusion of paraeducators in educational settings over the past several decades, issues continue to exist concerning the supervision and professional development of these individuals in school settings. Many teacher education programs emphasize strategies for classroom organization and managing student behavior, but few offer meaningful coursework or guidance to prepare teachers for supervising other adults. This disconnect often occurs because teacher preparation preservice instructors have limited, if any, experience working in schools and directly supervising paraeducators. Their supervision experience is often limited to discussing hypothetical situations that are not contextually based. Thus, teachers, especially those who serve students with more intense needs, report collaboration with and supervision of paraeducators and other adults as challenging aspects of their first years in the classroom. In this article, the authors describe a systematic approach for teachers, which includes processes for: (1) supervising staff training; (2) inservice strategies; and (3) problem-solving strategies. The authors suggest that a systematic approach minimizes challenges that go along with supervising adults in the classroom. In addition, these processes have the possibility for establishing a productive learning environment for educators and students. (Contains 7 figures.)

Devlin, P. (2008). Create effective teacher – Paraprofessional teams. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44(1), 41-44. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Any given year, general and special education teachers may find themselves managing and supervising one or more paraprofessionals within their classrooms. Paraprofessionals represent a growing and important segment of personnel used to provide support for students with severe learning or behavioral needs in self-contained and inclusive settings. The experience of working as an instructional team may be a positive or negative one, having various implications for students. When teacher and paraprofessional are clearly working as a team, an educational atmosphere exists that is favorable for positive student learning. This article provides teachers with useful strategies and tips when working with paraprofessionals for creating an environment that is beneficial for adults and students.

Drecktrah M.E. (2000, Spring). Preservice teachers’ preparation to work with paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 12(2), 157-164. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/drecktrah.html

Findings were based on 71% return rate and indicated the majority of respondents to be female (83%), with males comprising 15 percent. In addition to other demographic data, findings reported 67% of respondents expected to supervise paraeducators, and 38% indicated that they are expected to evaluate educators. Fourteen percent of respondents indicated that they had some form of preparation and information on how to collaborate with paraeducators in their teacher education program. Ten percent reported preparation on how to supervise paraeducators, and 7% received preparation on how to evaluate paraeducators. Eighty-eight percent reported no preparation by their schools system to work with paraeducators. Fifty-three percent of the teachers surveyed indicated that they sought out opportunities to educate themselves to work with paraeducators. Ninety percent of respondents believe teacher education institutions need to address working with paraeducators. Seventy-four percent of respondents believe special education teachers need preservice training to educate paraeducators. Suggested training content for paraeducators include (a) behavior management, (b) tutoring, © communication skills, (d) disabilities, (e) observing and recording behavior, (f) computer skills, and (g) record keeping. The authors discuss limitation of this study, which include (a) respondents volunteered and self-reported to survey, (b) respondents perceptions not necessarily reflecting realities, and © absence of verification of findings through sites visits or other methods.

French N.K. (1996). A case study of a speech-language pathologist’s supervision of assistants in a school setting: Tracy’s story. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 103-110. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This case study describes the experiences of a newly graduated speech-language pathologist working in a small urban school district with a series of speech-language assistants who have various levels of qualifications and personality types. It illustrates how professional supervision skills, preservice paraprofessional training, professional/paraprofessional role distinctions, hiring practices, pay, and working conditions influence and affect the use of paraprofessionals. (Author/DB)

French N. K. (1998). Working together: Resource teachers and paraeducators. Remedial and Special Education, 19, 357-368. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study examined the relationship between 18 pairs of special-education resource teachers and the paraeducators they supervise. Teachers were divided in their beliefs about the fundamental role of paraeducators, whether as assistants to the teacher or to the student. Teachers also expressed reluctance about their supervisory role, preferring to view paraeducators as peers. (Author/DB)

French N. K. (2000). Topic #3: Taking time to save time: Delegating to paraeducators. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3), 79-83. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This third installation of the “Paraeducator Supervision Notebook” focuses on practical ways teachers can make decisions about which classroom tasks to delegate to a paraeducator. It discusses effective time management, the benefits of delegation, reasons school professionals fail to delegate, and steps for delegation to paraeducators. (CR)

French N. K. (2001). Supervising paraprofessionals: A survey of teacher practices. Journal of Special Education 35, 41-53. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study examined the practices of 321 special education teachers with responsibility for supervising paraprofessionals. Teachers reported little preparation for supervision; most were not involved in hiring but were responsible for evaluation; most provided oral, not written instructions; few held regular meetings with paraprofessionals; and there were many overlapping tasks of teachers and paraprofessionals. (Contains references.) (Author/DB).

French N. K. (2003). Managing paraeducators in your school: How to hire, train, and supervise non-certified staff. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This guide provides tools and strategies for recruiting, managing, and using paraeducators in schools. It offers guidelines for using paraeducators in ways that best contribute to student achievement as well as strategies for identifying best practices, time frames, and people best suited for training paraprofessionals. It includes specific guidelines for working with paraeducators in special education, Title I, ESL training, school libraries and media centers, general and special education classrooms, speech/language pathology, and health-care services. It is designed for district-level administrators, school administrators, and teachers. The chapters are titled as follows: (1) “Employing Support Personnel in Schools”; (2) “Potential Problems with Paraeducators/Finding Solutions”; (3) “The Shifting Roles of School Professionals”; (4) “Recruiting and Hiring Paraprofessionals”; (5) “Starting Off on the Right Foot”; (6) “Taking Time to Save Time: Delegating to Paraeducators”; (7) “Planning for Paraeducators”; (8) “Paraeducator Training”; (9) “Monitoring and Evaluating Paraeducator Performance”; (10) “Managing the Workplace.” Each chapter contains a summary. The guide also contains many user-friendly information recaps; lists of questions; sample forms; sample plans; worksheets for a variety of tasks; and self-assessment and support checklists for a variety of tasks. (Contains a subject index and 73 references.) (WFA)

French, N. K. & Chopra, R. V. (2006). Teachers as Executives. Theory into Practice, 45(3), 230-238. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The roles and responsibilities of special educator shave shifted as schools move to provide inclusive services for students with disabilities. The inclusive special educator is responsible for coordinating a complex system of adults and students—often including paraeducators, related service specialists, classroom teachers, and peer assistants. This contemporary role is analogous to that of an executive in business settings and requires comparable leadership, collaboration, and communication skills. Teachers who demonstrate skills in 5 key functioning areas may see more successful inclusion of their students. Of importance, teachers who are adjusting to the shift in role require certain administrative supports as they acquire this new identity of executive.

French N. K., & Pickett, A.L. (1997). Paraprofessionals in special education: Issues for teacher educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20(1), 61-73. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Identifies and discusses issues associated with the employment of paraprofessionals in special education programs likely to be of the greatest importance and interest to teacher educators. These include teacher preparation to supervise, training of paraprofessionals, role overlap, paraprofessionals as community links, and paraprofessionals as potential professionals. (CR)

Freschi D.F. (1999). Guidelines for working with one-to-one aides. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(4), 42-47. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Explores what educators can do to facilitate effective collaboration with aides who are providing one-to-one support for mainstreamed children with such disabilities as autism and pervasive developmental disability. Emphasis is on the importance of effective planning, careful identification of roles and skill areas, and supervision. (DB)

Gerlach K. (2001). Let’s team up: A checklist for paraeducators, teachers, and principals. Washington, DC: National Education Association of the United States. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This checklist is designed to help paraeducators, teachers, and principals understand their roles and responsibilities as they relate to each other. It offers tips for teachers on working effectively with paraeducators, practical suggestions for paraeducators on clarifying their jobs and relationships with students and school staff, and advice for principals on the administrative supervision of paraeducators. Five sections focus on: “Introduction” (e.g., how the checklist can be beneficial and who should use it); “The Paraeducator’s Role” (e.g., major responsibilities, learning school policies and procedures, working with teachers and supervisors, and performing assigned tasks); “The Teacher’s Role” (e.g., major responsibilities, beginning the school year, managing paraeducators, assigning tasks, and giving feedback); “The Principal’s Role” (e.g., major responsibilities, hiring paraeducators, creating a professional climate, and supporting the teacher-paraeducator team); “A Winning Team” (reasons to team up, 10 characteristics of an effective team, breaking in a new team member, and promoting and assessing the team); and “Resources” (books, articles, videos, Web sites, and organizations). (SM)

Gerschel, L. (2005). The special educational needs coordinator’s role in managing teaching assistants: The Greenwich experience. Support for Learning: British Journal of Learning Support, 20(2), 69-76. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

In this article Liz Gerschel explores some aspects of the role of the special educational needs coordinator (SENCO) in the management of teaching assistants (TAs) in mainstream schools, drawing on the experience of professionals working in the London Borough of Greenwich. The SENCO’s responsibilities for managing TAs are discussed and issues of recruitment, appointment, job descriptions, deployment, the roles and responsibilities of TAs and their managers, collaboration between TAs and teachers, TA induction and training, and monitoring the work of TAs are explored.

Ghere G., & York-Barr, J. (2003). Employing, developing, and directing special education paraprofessionals in inclusive education programs: Findings from a multi-site case study. Minneapolis, MN: Institute on Community Integration (UCEDD) & Department of Educational Policy and Administration, University of Minnesota. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/ghere2.html

It was not until the 1997 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) that federal special education legislation referred to “paraprofessionals.” This was despite the paraprofessional workforce expanding from 10,000 in 1965 to over 500,000 full-time equivalent employees by 1996 (Pickett, 1986, 1996). IDEA focused national attention on paraprofessionals who support students with disabilities in public schools. Concurrently, the literature on paraprofessional roles and responsibilities, direction, and development has grown steadily. Although more research is needed in all of these areas, little continues to be known about paraprofessional employment processes (Giangreco, Edelman, Broer, & Doyle, 2001). Policies and practices at each level of the school district (i.e., team, school, district) affect paraprofessional employment, direction, and development. There is a significant gap in our knowledge about how districts are looking at these issues across the levels of district and the degree of communication and coordination that exists between the levels of a district. These issues are particularly important for inclusive special education programs because the programs tend to be highly decentralized and paraprofessionals often do not work in close proximity to the special education teachers most of the school day. The purpose of this study was to describe and understand the systems that districts use to employ, develop, and direct their special education paraprofessionals to work effectively in inclusive special education programs. A multi-site case study of three school districts was conducted. District level special education personnel in each district identified one elementary special education teacher and one secondary special education teacher whom they believed were effectively including students with disabilities in general education classes and who directed the work of at least two paraprofessionals. Other key informants (e.g., special education directors, special education supervisors, principals, paraprofessionals) were drawn from the site and district levels in the three school districts. A total of 53 individuals from across the three districts participated in the study. Data collection included semi-structured interviews and structured group interviews. The findings clustered around key areas: The work of paraprofessionals in inclusive education programs. The work of special educators in supporting paraprofessionals. Developing the knowledge and skills of paraprofessionals.

Giangreco M. F. (2003). Working with paraprofessionals. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 50-53.

Giangreco M.F., Broer, S.M., & Edelman, S.W. (2002). Schoolwide planning to improve paraeducator supports: A pilot study. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 21(1), 3-15. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/RSEQ0221%281%293-15.pdf

This pilot study chronicled the use of a process called, A Guide to School wide Planning for Paraeducator Supports, by teams in four schools, grades K-12. Data reflect the utilization and outcomes of the process along with the perspectives of 27 study participants. Findings indicated that the process assisted all four schools to self-assess their paraeducator practices, identify priorities in need of improvement, develop action plans, and implement them. Study participants reported that the process did what it purported to do and rated it highly on a series of consumer-oriented variables (e.g., ease of use). Implications for schools and future use are discussed for improving paraeducator supports.

Hauerwas, L. B., & Goessling, D. P. (2008). Who are the interventionists? Guidelines for paraeducators in RTI. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 4(3) Article 4. Retrieved August 30, 2008 from http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/vol4/iss3/art4

As a Response to Intervention approach begins to be utilized in our schools, there is growing confusion regarding the role of teacher assistants/paraeducators in this problem solving approach. In this article, the authors share survey and interview data from their experiences working with Rhode Island teacher assistants – both in leading teacher assistant training on RTI and in researching implementation of RTI in RI elementary schools. Both challenges and guidelines for the use of teacher assistants in a RTI model are presented. Recommendations for the effective use of teacher assistants in general education and special education classrooms include: teacher assistants as members of school-wide intervention teams; a greater focus on the use of teacher assistants during the assessment process; better professional development; and increased common planning time for enhanced communication about student learning.

Jerwood L. (1999). Using special needs assistants effectively. British Journal of Special Education, 26(3), 127-129. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

After interviews with seven English special needs assistants found that they lacked clear ideas about expectations and reported poor classroom communication, the assistants were attached to one subject area rather than to specific pupils. Results found the assistants all felt happier in their work and accepted as members of the team. (Author/CR)

Killoran J., Templeman, T. P., Peters, J., & Udell, T. (2001) Identifying paraprofessional competencies for early intervention and early childhood special education. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(1), 68-73. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article identifies competencies needed by paraprofessionals working in early childhood special education including ways to document various mastery levels. It describes use of the competencies in Oregon’s early childhood special education personnel development program. It explains the process used to identify needed competencies and also reports on a survey of 64 paraprofessionals of their perceived training needs. (Contains references.) (DB)

Lewis, S., & McKenzie, A. R. (2009). Knowledge and Skills for Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments Supervising the Work of Paraeducators. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 103(8), 481-494. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Teachers of students with visual impairments and paraeducators who work with students with visual impairments were surveyed to determine if previous research related to the competencies needed by teachers who supervise paraeducators applied to this subset of special educators. Both groups confirmed the importance of the competencies, but identified differences in their demonstration by teachers of students with visual impairments. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

McKenzie, A. R. & Lewis, S. (2008). The role and training of paraprofessionals who work with students who are visually impaired. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 102, 459-471. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This survey of teachers of students with visual impairments and paraprofessionals who work with students with visual impairments found that more than 35% of the paraprofessionals were providing direct instruction in skills in the expanded core curriculum. Thus, the roles of these two groups need to be clarified.

Mistry, M., Burton, N., & Brundrett, M. (2004). Managing LSAs: An evaluation of the use of learning support assistants in an urban primary school, School Leadership & management, 24(2), 125-137. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The multi-tasking of classroom or learning support assistants (LSAs) is a well-established phenomenon in English primary schools. As their roles have become better defined and specifically funded an element of role specialism has become essential. However, the management and direction of LSAs does not always appear to be clearly or effectively structured. Evidence collected from a small urban English lower school (4-9 years old) shows that job descriptions can be inaccurate and management structures ambiguous. Whilst senior management is able to visualize the ideal, lack of effective communication results in inefficient and arbitrary management of LSAs by teaching staff. The lack of a clear line-management structure and ownership issues concerning the tasks performed are identified as the key barriers to improving the situation.

Morgan J., & Ashbaker, B.Y. (2001). A teacher’s guide to working with paraeducators and other classroom aides. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This book provides advice and activities to help forge productive working relationships between teachers and paraeducators. Chapter 1, “Leading the Classroom Instructional Team,” examines teacher responsibilities as leaders of classroom instructional teams, discussing how their new roles as paraeducator supervisors can mesh with more traditional roles. Chapter 2, “Assigning Roles and Responsibilities,” examines the process of identifying roles and responsibilities for paraeducators. Chapter 3, “Improving Communications,” considers different approaches and experiences adults bring to classrooms and how they influence effective communication. Chapter 4, “Monitoring the Quality of Your Paraeducator’s Work”; chapter 5, “Providing On-the-Job Training”; and chapter 6, “Creating a Feedback Loop,” describe the process of assessing paraeducator skills and abilities, providing training, and establishing procedures for giving and receiving feedback. Chapter 7, “The Logistics”; chapter 8, “Troubleshooting”; and chapter 9, “Practicing What You’ve Learned,” examine practical concerns. The first seven chapters provide suggestions for translating chapter subject matter into specific classroom situations, offering fill-in-the-blank forms that can serve as the basis of self-improvement plans and help teachers set personal goals related to supervisory roles. A list of organizations that provide useful information for paraeducators and teachers is included. (SM)

Nevin, A., Villa, R. A., & Thousand, J. S. (2009). A guide to co-teaching with paraeducators: Practical tips for K-12 educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Pickett A. L. (1999). Strengthening and supporting teacher/provider-paraeducator teams: Guidelines for paraeducator roles, supervision, and preparation. New York, New York: City University of New York, National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals in Education and Related Services. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This technical assistance manual contains guidelines for paraeducator roles, supervision, and skill and knowledge competency standards on which policymakers and implementers can build to improve the effectiveness of teacher/provider-paraeducator teams. The guidelines and standards were developed by a project of national significance funded by the Office of Special Education Programs of the U.S. Department of Education. Specific sections address: (1) guiding principles of paraeducator employment roles, preparation, and supervision; (2) the need for paraeducator utilization and preparation guidelines; (3) factors creating a critical need for the development and implementation of standards for paraeducator roles, responsibilities, skill and knowledge competencies, and supervision; (4) distinctions in teacher/provider and paraeducator team roles; (5) scope of teacher/provider responsibilities for paraeducator supervision; (6) standards for teacher/provider supervisory competencies; (7) paraeducator scope of responsibilities and skill standards; (8) scope of responsibilities for paraeducators in program implementation teams; (9) standards for paraeducator knowledge and skill competencies; (10) job descriptions for paraeducators; (11) assessing teacher/provider-paraeducator team performance; (12) teacher performance indicators; (13) paraeducator performance indicators; (14) developing the policies and infrastructures for strengthening teacher/provider-paraeducator teams; (15) credentialing procedures for paraeducators; and (16) the role of higher education in paraeducator preparation. (Contains 38 references.) (CR)

Pickett A.L., & Gerlach, K. (1997). Supervising paraeducators in school settings: A team approach. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/pickett.html

The first chapter provides a historical review of the evolving role of paraeducators and some of the central issues facing education today. Chapter two discusses team roles in instructional settings; chapter three addresses team roles in therapy services; chapter four covers the management of paraeducators; chapter five describes team building strategies; chapter six examines professional and ethical issues in teams; and chapter seven discusses paraeducator administrative issues. The authors also discuss future issues in chapter eight and the contribution of paraeducators to improving educational outcomes for students. Chapters are organized by learning objectives and discussion questions. Exercises, case studies, and worksheets are provided to illustrate main ideas.

Railsback J., Reed, B., & Schmidt, K. (2002). Working together for successful paraeducator services: A guide for paraeducators, teachers, and principals. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Portland, OR. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This booklet provides an overview of the current issues surrounding paraeducator employment and synthesizes recommendations of various national, state, and local paraeducator task force groups. Based on these recommendations, the booklet outlines suggestions for paraeducators, teachers, and principals to increase paraeducator effectiveness. After an introduction, the booklet focuses on: “In Context: What are the Current Issues Involving Paraeducators?” (concerns about preparation training, and roles and about recent legislation); “How are Researchers, Practitioners, and Policymakers Responding to These Concerns and Policies?”; “What are the Guidelines for Paraeducator Roles and Responsibilities?” (roles for teachers, principals, and paraeducators); “Northwest Sampler” (Houghtaling Elementary School, Ketchikan, Alaska; Oakwood Elementary School, Preston, Idaho; Hardin Public Schools, Hardin, Montana; and Cherrydale School, Steilacoom, Washington); and “Conclusion” (paraeducators can offer tremendous benefits for children, providing instructional reinforcement that enhances every student’s opportunity to learn, meet standards, and achieve academic success). An appendix presents existing or proposed state paraeducator certification policies. Relevant resources are listed. (Contains 28 references.) (SM)

Riggs C. G. (May/June 2004). To teachers: What paraeducators want you to know. Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(5), 8-12. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/riggs5.html

This article shares the following ten points:

Riggs C. G. (2002). Providing administrative support for classroom paraeducators: What’s a building administrator to do? Rural Special Education Quarterly 21 (3), 10-14. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/riggs.html

This article addresses the changing role administrators have over the hiring and supervision of paraeducators. Historically paraeducators worked primarily under the supervision of special educators. With the dramatic increase in the use of paraeducators in general education classrooms over the past decade, administrators have been called upon to interact more directly with paraeducators.

Riggs discusses the three “R’s” that can help define administrative support for paraeducators.

They are:

Riggs also provides a list titled “Ten Tips for Providing Administrative Support”.

Salzberg C.L., & Morgan, J. (1995). Preparing teachers to work with paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 18, 49-55. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The authors cite five reasons for increased interest in paraprofessionals. They note that the growing use of paraeducators raises different problems for teachers. They also review commonalities in training programs / recommendations

Rutherford, G. (2008). “Yeah, he’s just like you.” The role of teacher aides in supporting children’s understandings of and relationships with one another. New Zealand Journal of Disability Studies, 13, 81-100.

Tews, L., & Lupart, J. (2008). Student with disabilities’ perspectives of the role and impact of paraprofessionals in inclusive education settings. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 5(1), 39-46. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Over the past few decades, the role and presence of the paraprofessional, that is the educational assistant, within the classroom has evolved from providing teacher and student support to involving greater decision-making concerning instructional content and practice. The extent to which this shift is impacting students with a variety of mild to severe developmental disabilities is a crucial question that to date remains under-researched and unanswered. The authors studied this issue by probing students’ perceptions concerning the role of their paraprofessionals and their impact on the student’s inclusive education experience. The authors explored the following perspective areas noted by the students: student personal control, impact on peer relations, dependency on adults, instructional relationship of teachers compared to paraprofessionals, and inclusion of peers. In general, the authors found that students felt that their paraprofessionals were viewed favorably by peers, but that promotion of socialization and peer networking may have been compromised as they reported that they spent a majority of the school day interacting with the paraprofessional as opposed to other students. Other factors bear consideration as well, and the authors conclude that the educational system continues to be in need of revamping, and that the efficacy of the system needs to be demonstrated by empirical evidence.

Tobin, R. (2006). Five ways to facilitate the teacher assistant’s work in the classroom. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 2(6), Article 4. http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1202&context=education

A teacher and a teacher assistant, working together in an inclusive grade-six classroom, provided an invaluable insider perspective on the kind of context that leads to effective support for all students. Findings from this case study revealed five ways in which the teacher could facilitate the work of the teacher assistant, by: 1) focusing on relationship building (nudging instead of nagging); 2) monitoring the amount of teacher talk to afford mini-lessons; 3) applying the basics of differentiation and universal design; 4) negotiating classroom management roles and sharing responsibilities for students; and 5) using an action-oriented format to shape the communication agenda.

Trautman, M. L. (2004). Preparing and managing paraprofessionals. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(3), 131-138. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

More than 525,000 people serve as educational paraprofessionals in the United States (Likins, 2003). Due to the large number of paraprofessionals, their recruitment, hiring, training, and supervision has received increased emphasis. This article summarizes current legislation regarding the roles and responsibilities of paraeducators, and methods and ideas are suggested for preparing and managing paraeducators. (Contains 2 illustrations and 5 figures.)

Wallace T., Shin, J., Bartholomay, T., Stahl, B. (2001). Knowledge and skills for teachers supervising the work of paraprofessionals. Exceptional Children, 67, 520-533. http://www.sbac.edu/~werned/DATA/RESEARCH/journals/Excep%20Children/teachers%

This study identified competencies needed by teachers to supervise or direct the work of paraprofessionals in educational settings. Participants included 92 administrators, 266 teachers, and 211 paraprofessionals. Respondents completed a survey of prospective competencies for teachers supervising the work of paraprofessionals. In addition, respondents were asked about the extent to which they observed teachers’ demonstration of these competencies in their school environments. Results of the study suggest that participants considered the competencies very important, but that the competencies were not observed as frequently as their perceived importance. For teachers who reported they did not demonstrate competencies, it was often due to a lack of preservice preparation or professional staff development opportunities. Implications for practice are discussed.

Paraeducator Training

Balshaw M., & Farrell, P. (2002). Teacher assistants: Practical strategies for effective classroom support. London: David Fulton. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/balshaw.html

This 136-page book addresses the work of Teaching Assistants (TAs) is based on review of literature (primarily from the UK) and the authors own research in Manchester, UK. The book is divided into four main sections. Section 1 (Background to the development of the Good Practice Guide) describes: (1) recent developments in the work of teaching assistants in the UK, and (2) the origins of the “Good Practice Guide.” Section 2 (Developing a conceptual framework for improving practice) addresses: (3) defining TA responsibilities, (4) creating partnerships with teachers and others, and (5) developing assistant teams and reviewing performance and promoting development. Section 3 (Strategies drawn from experiences in schools and LEAs) includes: (6) strategies that support the development activities, (7) developing clear job descriptions, (8) working flexibly with assistants, (9) planning teamwork with teachers, (10) drawing parents, governors and others into the work of assistants, (11) creating opportunities for team development, and (12) devising induction strategies, professional development reviews and records of achievement. Section 4 (Summary: Reflections on future practice) addresses: (13) working effectively with teaching assistants. The four main sections are followed by approximately 30 pages of appendices (e.g., indicators of effective practice, workshop activities, action research plans, sample questionnaires, job descriptions).

Bessette, K. K., Wills H. P. (2007). An example of an elementary school paraprofessional-implemented functional analysis and intervention. Behavioral Disorders, 32 (3), 192-210. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act mandates the performance of functional assessment for students with severe behavior problems. A functional analysis can be one part of this process but its use has been minimal. This study evaluates whether a paraprofessional could (a) be trained to correctly perform 3 conditions of a functional analysis with a student with severe behavior problems, and (b) be trained to correctly implement a function-based intervention. Procedures included an interview and descriptive assessment; training on performing a functional analysis; a functional analysis; a second descriptive assessment; and a function-based intervention. The results indicate it is possible to train a paraprofessional to accurately perform 3 conditions of a functional analysis, and then correctly implement a function-based intervention. (Contains 3 figures and 5 tables.)

Bingham, M.A., Spooner, F., & Browder, D. (2007). Training paraeducators to promote the use of augmentative and alternative communication by students with significant disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42(3), 339-352. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of training paraeducators on (a) paraeducator prompting use of augmentative communication (AAC) systems, (b) paraeducator responding to student requests, © student use of AAC, and (d) student problem behavior via a series of multiple probe designs. Participants were three paraeducators and students. Paraeducators were trained on (a) importance of communication, (b) relationship between behavior and communication, © use of AAC, (d) how to prompt students to use AAC and respond to communications, and (e) how to self evaluate their behavior. All paraeducators increased the number of times they prompted student use of AAC and responded to student requests. All students increased use of AAC and exhibited fewer problem behaviors. (Contains 4 figures and 2 tables.)

Blalock G., Rivera, D., Anderson, K., & Kottler, B. (1992). A school district/university partnership in paraprofessional training. LD Forum, 17(3), 29-36. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/blalock2.html

The authors describe a paraprofessional training program that is based on a partnership between a university and a school district. Program content is described in terms of two strands, one for paraprofessionals who were new to the district, and another strand for paraprofessionals who were interested in more advanced content and skills. Logistical issues related to implementing the program were also discussed (e.g., recruiting presenters, training during school versus after school). Preliminary evaluation of the training program is based on three years of implementation data and has influenced modifications in the training program. The authors provide a frank summary of the advantages and limitations of implementing this training program.

Bugaj S.J. (2002). Improving the skills of special education paraprofessionals: A rural school district’s model for staff development. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 21(1), 16-24. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/bugaj.html

This article describes a rural school district’s effort to develop a staff development model for their “teacher aides” in special education classes. The developers consulted the literature and their staff as they developed the content and format for this continuous staff development model. The model provides training in the areas of: 1) basic academic instruction in behavior management; 2) Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation; 3) Instruction in lifting; and Nonviolent Crisis Intervention. The author summarized data collected from their initial needs assessment, projected program cost, and end of year questionnaire. Modification to the model’s first year of implementation are reviewed.

Carroll D. (2001, November/December). Considering paraeducator training, roles, and responsibilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(2), 60-64. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article addresses ways that regular and special education teachers can provide training for paraeducators and delineates the roles and responsibilities appropriate for paraeducators. Training suggestions cover the interview, orientation, sharing information, meetings, and team skills. Paraeducator responsibilities require teaching students inclusion skills, interpersonal/social skills, daily living skills, community skills, and domestic skills. (Contains references.) (DB)

Carter, E. W., O’Rourke, L., Sisco, L., & Pelsue, D. (2009). Knowledge, responsibilities, and training needs of paraprofessionals in elementary and secondary schools. Remedial and Special Education, 30, 344-359. DOI: 10.1177/0741932508324399 http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The authors queried 313 paraprofessionals working in 77 elementary, middle, and high schools about (a) the contexts within which they support students with disabilities, (b) their knowledge about core competencies in educating these students, © the job-related tasks they perform most frequently, (d) their perceived ability to perform these tasks effectively, and (e) their need for further training across these knowledge and task areas. The authors found that paraprofessionals worked with a broad range of students in multiple types of classrooms within varied instructional contexts. Although most reported moderate levels of understanding across core knowledge standards, paraprofessionals articulated additional training needs in each area. In light of recent initiatives focused on increasing the quality of the special education workforce, recommendations for future research and improved practice in this area are provided. (Contains 4 tables.)

Causton-Theoharis J. N. & Malmgren, K. W. (2005). Increasing peer interactions for students with severe disabilities via paraprofessional training. Exceptional Children, 71(4), 431-444. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

As students with severe disabilities are included in general education settings, the use of paraprofessionals has expanded to meet these students’ needs. Unfortunately, paraprofessionals can have the inadvertent effect of intensifying the social isolation of students with disabilities. This study investigated the effectiveness of a training program aimed at teaching four paraprofessionals to facilitate interactions between students with severe disabilities and their peers. A multiple baseline, single-subject design across four paraprofessional/student pairs was utilized. Observational data were collected over the baseline and post intervention phases. Rates of paraprofessional facilitative behavior increased following the intervention. Additionally, rates of student interaction increased immediately and dramatically and were maintained through the maintenance probe.

Cobb, C. (2007). Training paraprofessionals to effectively work with all students. The Reading Teacher, 60 (7), 686-689.

Coufal K.L., Steckelberg, A.L., & Vasa, S.F. (1991). Current trends in the training and utilization of paraprofessional in speech and language programs: A report on an eleven-state survey. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 22, 51-59. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Administrators (n=235) of programs for children with communication disorders in 11 Midwestern states were surveyed to assess trends in the training and utilization of paraprofessionals. Topics included current trends in employment; paraprofessional training; use of professional and state guidelines; and district policies for supervision. (Author/DB)

Cremin H., Thomas, G., & Vincett, K. (2003). Learning zones: An evaluation of three models for improving learning through teacher/teaching assistant teamwork. Support for Learning, 18(4), 154-164. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/cremin.html

This study, conducted in the UK, explored the use of three different models for utilizing teaching assistants in general education classrooms. These three models, all designed to enhance role clarification and communication, included:

Six classes from six different schools participated. Two classes (Grades 2 and 3), implemented each of the three models during an hour literacy period, once per week for a six weeks. Pre-intervention data was collected by videotaping the literacy sessions prior to use of the models and coding the level of academic data for each child in each classroom using a 10 minute sample per student and a 10 second coding interval. The same procedure was used at the end of the six-week period. Qualitative data, in form of interviews and focus groups with teachers and assistants were also conducted. Teachers were also asked to maintain documentary records to show how the interventions were implemented (e.g., planning sheets for the literacy hour).

Davis, RW, Kotecki, J.E., & Harvey, M.W. (2007). Responsibilities and training needs of paraprofessionals in physical education. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 24(1), 70-83.

This study describes responsibilities and training needs of paraeducators in physical education. Paraeducators (n =138) employed in 34 Midwestern schools received a 27-item questionnaire. Of the 138 paraeducators contacted, 76 responded, resulting in a 55.1% response rate. Only 16% of the total respondents (n = 76) reported receiving specific training in physical education; however, 68 (90%) indicated a willingness to be trained. Less than half (n = 29, 38%) indicated participating in physical education by escorting students, providing cues, and working individually with students. Fewer than eight (28%) of the physical education paraeducators assisted with assessments, shared IEP suggestions, or helped implement behavior modification programs. The most desired training areas included activity modifications, attributes of students with disabilities, and knowledge of motor development.

Deardorff, P., Glasenapp, G., Schalock. M., & Udell, T. (2007). TAPS: An innovative professional development program for paraeducators in early childhood special education. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 26(3), 3-15.

Devlin, P. (2005). Effect of continuous improvement training on student interaction and engagement. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(2), 47-59. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article describes a preliminary study investigating whether a specific awareness and training for six teacher-paraprofessional teams would have an effect on the inclusion of six students with mild to severe disabilities in elementary general education environments. An experimental design employing a pretest-posttest control group with matched subjects was used to evaluate the effectiveness of training that emphasized the continuous improvement components of teamwork, goal setting, and data collection. Data focusing on student interaction and engagement were collected using MS-CISSAR. Results indicated an increase in teacher interaction and a decrease in paraprofessional interaction with special education students after the training component. Engaged behavior was not found to change noticeably for this group of students. Individual student strategies and benefits are also reported. The article includes a discussion of training format, key elements, and their relationship to long-term systems change. (Contains 6 tables.)

Elrod G. F., Insko, L., & Williams, L. (1993). A descriptive study of instructional assistants in rural and remote eastern Oregon: Implications for professional development. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 12 (4), 22-30. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A survey of 14 special education instructional assistants in rural Oregon showed they were generally mature in age and had lived in eastern Oregon for many years. Over half had some college training. Most were assigned to elementary resource rooms. Respondents rated “instructional methodology” as their strongest training preference. (KS)

Feehan P. F. & Wade, S. L. (1998). The paraprofessional alternative. Journal of Career Development, 25(2), 149-157. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Limited resources and demand for expanded services led to the use of paraprofessional staff at the University of Missouri Career Center. Based on a peer helping model, the center uses college students as peer counselors, with appropriate selection, training, and supervision. (SK)

Forster, E.M., & Holbrook, M. C. (2005). Implications of paraprofessional supports for students with visual impairments. Re:View: Rehabilitation and Education for Blindness and Visual Impairment, 36(4), 155-163. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The implementation of high quality and carefully individualized educational programs carried out by qualified professionals has been shown to largely mitigate the impact of visual impairment on development. Research has also shown that, in the absence of high quality, specialized intervention, children who are blind or have visual impairments may be at an increased risk for literacy problems and that these difficulties may have an adverse impact on their educational career and employment potential. In fact, estimates of under- or unemployment among adults with visual impairments have been reported at approximately 70% or higher, and these employment statistics have been connected to the individual’s previous access to early and frequent quality literacy instruction. This article discusses the role of paraprofessional supports for students with visual impairments, and includes the following sections: (1) Reasons for Using Paraprofessional Supports; (2) The Role of the Paraprofessional; (3) Effectiveness of Paraprofessionals; and (4) Paraprofessional Training.

French N.K., & Cabell, E.A. (1993). Are community college programs for paraeducators feasible? Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 17(2), 131-140. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Examines the feasibility of developing training programs in the Colorado community college system for paraeducators (i.e., technicians who provide personal care, instructional services and behavior management to students with disabilities and remedial needs) based on a survey of directors of special education, teachers, and personnel directors. Suggests characteristics of such programs. (DMM).

Ghere G., York-Barr, J., & Sommerness, J. (2002). Supporting students with disabilities in inclusive schools: A curriculum for job-embedded paraprofessional development. Minneapolis: Institute on Community Education ( University of Minnesota). http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This facilitator’s manual is part of a curriculum to help special educators teach paraprofessionals to support individual students with disabilities effectively, especially students with moderate to severe disabilities who require individualized support. Special aspects of the curriculum include its site-based and job embedded approach as well as the incorporation of follow-up coaching and feedback. Introductory material provides a curriculum overview and answers to questions about the curriculum. The curriculum is comprised of four instructional parts with a total of seven instructional units that address: (1) what inclusive education means; (2) what to teach (ways to maximize learning opportunities for students); (3) how to instruct (prompting, waiting, fading); (4) how to instruct (use of natural cues, consequences, and supports); (5) how to instruct (individualized adaptations); (6) how to interact (behavior as communication); and (7) how to interact (student relationships). Each of the seven units includes a unit guide, directions for facilitation, and handouts suitable for reproduction. (Contains 13 references.) (DB)

Giangreco M.F., Backus, L., Cichoski, Kelly, E., Sherman, P., & Mavropoulos, Y. (2003). Paraeducator training materials to facilitate inclusive education: Initial field-test data. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 22(1), 17-27. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/RSEQ0322%281%2917-27.pdf

This study presents initial field-test evaluation feedback on training materials designed to help prepare paraeducators to assist in the provision of special education in inclusive schools. Feedback was collected from 213 paraeducators who participated in the course, Paraeducator Entry- Level Training for Supporting Students with Disabilities, 105 who participated in the course, Supporting Students with Challenging Behaviors: A Paraeducator Curriculum, and the 23 instructors who taught a combined total of 20 sections of these courses in a variety of formats (e.g., face-to-face, interactive TV, intensive summer institute). Findings indicated that paraeducators gained new knowledge, perspectives, and skills that had direct application in their work. Both paraeducators and course instructors rated the materials favorably and provided feedback to improve them. Implications are offered for infusing paraeducator content into school-based staff development as well as training programs for prospective special and general education teachers.

Giangreco M.F., & Broer, S.M. (March/April 2003). The paraprofessional conundrum: Why we need alternative support strategies. TASH Connections Newsletter, 29 (3/4), 22-23. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/evolve/TASHConnections03.pdf

Glang A., Gersten, R., Singer, G. (1990). Computer-assisted video instruction in training paraprofessionals to teach brain-damaged clients. Journal of Special Education Technology, 10(3), 137-46. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study evaluated the effects of computer-assisted video instruction (CAVI) on three paraprofessionals’ implementation of the firming strategy (which presents new material in alternation with previously learned material) with three severely brain-damaged young men. Results indicated CAVI effectiveness with proficient strategy implementation, positive paraprofessional attitudes, and significant client behavior changes. (DB)

Hall, L.J., Grundon, G.S., Pope, C., Romero, A.B. (2010). Training paraprofessionals to use behavioral strategies when educating learners with autism spectrum disorders across environments. Behavioral Interventions, 25(1), 37-51.

Hall L. J., McClannahan, L. E., & Krantz, P. J. (1995). Promoting independence in integrated classrooms by teaching aides to use activity schedules and decreased prompts. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 30, 208-217. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study aimed to increase the independent engagement of integrated elementary students with disabilities, by decreasing prompts from aides and using pictorial activity schedules to diminish dependence on adult support. A nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design, replicated across three aide-child pairs, revealed that the intervention resulted in prompt reduction by the integration aides. (Author/DB)

Hammeken P.A. (1996). Inclusion: An essential guide for the paraprofessional. Minnetonka, MN: Peytral Publications. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/hammekin.html

This manual is designed to be a practical reference tool for paraprofessionals and teachers working in inclusionary settings. It provides an overview of the special education system, basic guidelines to support students in inclusionary settings, and lists a variety of strategies and ideas to implement in the classroom setting. The first chapter reviews myths and realties associated with inclusionary practices and the benefits of inclusion. Other chapter content includes: chapter two, the special education department; chapter three, getting started: the paraprofessional’s role; chapter four, the paraprofessional and the special education teacher; chapter five, modification categories; and chapter six, modification strategies. The appendix includes seventeen reproducible forms to assist with various aspects of inclusive schooling.

Hansen D. (1997). Use of focus-group needs assessment for planning paraprofessional staff development in Iowa’s education settings. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 81-90. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Describes how focus groups comprised of speech-language professionals, paraprofessionals, general and special education teachers, and parents in Iowa were used to conduct a needs assessment of issues in staff development and use of paraprofessional personnel and to design job-relevant personnel development programs. An attached chart lists themes emerging from the groups. (DB).

Harper V. (1994). Multicultural perspectives in the classroom: Professional preparation for educational paraprofessionals. Action in Teacher Education, XVI (3), 66-78. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Paraprofessionals often represent the closest linking of language and culture between communities and schools, taking the lead in teaching second-language learners. Their lack of professional education can create situations where the neediest children are served by the least prepared adults. The article suggests a professional career ladder for paraprofessionals. (SM)

Hilton A., & Gerlach, K. (1997). Employment, preparation and management of paraeducators: Challenges to appropriate services for students with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 32, 71-77. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Presents a position statement of the Board of Directors of the Division on Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities that reviews the employment, preparation, and management of paraeducators. The statement addresses role definition, employment and management, legal and ethical responsibilities, job descriptions, paraeducator training, and supervisory training. (CR)

Jolly, A. & Evans, S. (2005). Teacher assistants move to the front of the class: Job-embedded learning pays off in student achievement. Journal of Staff Development, 26(3), 8-13. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Job-embedded professional learning is a familiar concept in the Edenton-Chowan Public School System. In this article, the authors present D.F. Walker Elementary School in Edenton, North Carolina, a school where the entire staff focuses on continual learning, and teacher assistants engage in job-embedded, ongoing professional development to become effective instructional assistants for the teachers and students they serve. In addition, the authors state that it is not the law which drives behind the principal’s decision to include teacher assistants in learning teams, but it is to raise teacher assistants’ level of expertise in the area of literacy.

Keller, C.L., Bucholz, J., & Brady, M.P. (2007). Yes, I can! Empowering paraprofessionals to teach learning strategies. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(3), 18-23.

Lasater M. W., Johnson, M. M., & Fitzgerald, M. (2000). Completing the education mosaic: Paraeducator professional development options. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(1), 46-51.

Leblanc, M.P., Ricciardi, J.N., & Luiselli, J.K. (2005). Improving discrete trial instruction by paraprofessional staff through an abbreviated performance feedback intervention. Education & Treatment of Children, 28(1), 76-82. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

We evaluated an abbreviated performance feedback intervention as a training strategy to improve discrete trial instruction of children with autism by three paraprofessional staff (assistant teachers) at a specialized day school. Feedback focused on 10 discrete trial instructional skills demonstrated by the staff during teaching sessions. Following sessions, staff received verbal praise from a trainer for skills displayed correctly, and clarification/redirection was given contingent on incorrect performance. As demonstrated in a multiple baseline design, staff rapidly acquired the discrete trial instructional skills with intervention. Improved instruction was maintained up to 11 weeks post-training, and procedures were judged highly acceptable by staff. The benefits of performance feedback, and issues related to staff training, are discussed.

Malmgren, K.W., Causton-Theoharis, J.N., & Trezek, B.J. (2005). Increasing peer interactions for students with behavioral disorders via paraprofessional training. Behavioral Disorders, 31(1), 95-106. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

As more and more students with behavioral disorders (BD) are included in general education classrooms, the use of paraprofessionals in one-on-one support roles has expanded. Unfortunately, the use of paraprofessionals to provide one-on-one assistance can result in social isolation for students with disabilities. This multiple-baseline single-subject study examined the effectiveness of a paraprofessional training program designed to teach paraprofessionals to facilitate interactions between elementary-age students with BD and their peers in the general education classroom. Baseline and postintervention observational data reflecting: (1) the proximity of the paraprofessionals in relation to the students with BD; (2) the amount and type of facilitative behaviors displayed by the paraprofessionals; and (3) the rate of peer interactions experienced by the participating students with BD were collected for three paraprofessional/student pairs over a 7-week period. Rates of student interaction increased following the intervention. Rates of paraprofessional facilitative behavior also increased, though less markedly. Additionally, after the training intervention, all participating paraprofessionals faded their assistance more frequently and spent less time in the immediate vicinity of the students they served. Recommendations for use of paraprofessionals in the classroom and for paraprofessional training are discussed. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Martella R.C., Marchand-Martella, N.E., Macfarlane, C.A., & Young, K.R. (1993). Improving classroom behavior of a student with severe disabilities via paraprofessional training. British Columbia Journal of Special Education, 17, 33-44. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Systematic training of a paraprofessional in effective instructional procedures with a student with severe mental retardation and aberrant behaviors resulted in improved skills and fewer negative statements by the paraprofessional and decreased aberrant behaviors and increased compliance by the student. Follow-up at 55 weeks indicated maintenance of improved skills and student behaviors. (Author/DB)

Morehouse J.A., & Albright, L. (1991). The training trends and needs of paraprofessionals in transition service delivery agencies. Teacher Education and Special Education, 14(4), 248-256. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study examined the training options and needs of paraprofessionals who provide transition services to students with disabilities in public school and adult agencies. Questionnaire responses of 142 individuals and interviews with 27 paraprofessionals and supervisors indicated that few structured training programs for these paraprofessionals exist. The competencies and training needs of these personnel were identified. (Author/DB)

Morgan J., Ashbaker, B.Y., & Allred, D. (2000). Providing training for paraeducators: What motivates them to attend? The Researcher: A Publication of the Northern Rocky Mountain Educational Research Association 15(1), 50-55. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/morgan.html

“With the increase in numbers of paraeducators (teacher’s aides, classroom assistants, paraprofessionals) in classrooms in the last half century, and the increased sophistication of their assigned roles, the issue of training for this group becomes critical. Much of the training which is currently provided to paraeducators is not linked to a career pay structure, and administrators may be skeptical as to whether paraeducators would be willing to attend training given this lack of a vehicle for recognizing increased skill and knowledge levels. Paraeducators in three Western states were surveyed to ascertain their motivation for attending training. The results of this study suggest that paraeducators’; motivation for attending training is based on a simple desire to be better equipped to perform the tasks required of them.”

Morgan J., & Hofmeister, A.M. (1997). Staff development curricula for the paraeducator: Observations from the research. CASE in Point 10(2), 37-41.

Mueller P.H. (2003). Building capacity to attract, train, support and retain paraeducators. Williston, VT: Northeast Regional Resource Center. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/parasupport/reviews/mueller3.pdf

Passaro P. D., Pickett, A. L., Latham, G., HongBo, W. (1994). The training and support needs of paraprofessionals in rural special education. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 13(4), 3-9. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Two surveys of rural paraprofessionals, teachers, and administrators in special education identified paraprofessionals’ perceived training and support needs, current training requirements for special education paraprofessionals, and effective methods of providing training in rural areas. Results encompass demographics, extent and quality of supervision, retention issues, previous training, and training needs. Bar graphs detail paraprofessional and supervisor ratings of paraprofessional competencies. (RAH)

Parsons M.B., & Reid, D.H. (1999). Training basic teaching skills to paraeducators of students with severe disabilities: A one-day program. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(4), 48-55. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Describes a one-day Teaching Skills Training Program to train paraprofessional school personnel working with students with severe disabilities. The program focuses on four basic teaching competencies: task analysis, least-to-most assistive prompting, reinforcement, and error correction. The training format incorporates a classroom-based component, on-the-job monitoring and feedback, and follow-up supervision. (DB).

Pickett, A.L., Gerlach, K., Morgan, R., Likins, M., & Wallace, T. (2007). Paraeducators in schools: Strengthening the educational team . Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

P. L. 107-110, 107th Cong. (2001) (enacted) No Child Left Behind Act. Retrieved from: http://www.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA02/

Outlines the requirements for paraeducators contained in the NCLB legislation. Consult your state department of education for specific interpretations of the law as required by your state.

Potter C.A. & Richardson, H.R. (1999). Facilitating classroom assistants’ professional reflection through video workshops. British Journal of Special Education 26 (1), 34-36. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Describes a training program for classroom assistants which focused on development of reflective skills. The program used short video recordings of classroom situations followed by group discussion. A framework for evaluating the video situations and discussing them is also offered. (DB)

Quilty, K. M., (2007). Teaching paraprofessionals how to write and implement social stories for students with autism spectrum disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 182-189. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

A multiple-baseline design across subjects was used to determine if paraprofessionals could be effectively taught to write and implement “Social Stories”TM] that shared accurate social information and had a positive impact on the targeted behaviors of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Three paraprofessional-student pairs participated in the study. The data revealed that paraprofessionals could be effectively taught how to write and implement “Social Stories” Furthermore, the targeted student behaviors decreased after the implementation of the intervention. Maintenance data showed continued use of the “Social Stories” intervention and its effectiveness with the students with ASD.

Rea P. (January 2001). Paraprofessionals: Training for success. Quinlan’s Special Education Law Bulletin, 7(1), 1-2. http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/?Page=parasupport/reviews/rea.html

This brief article discusses the importance of training paraprofessionals while acknowledging that adequate training and opportunities still do not exist at a sufficient level to meet IDEA requirements in many school districts. The author states, that “the number of paraprofessionals in the school workforce [is] roughly doubling every decade.” (p. 1). She also suggests that the shortages of paraprofessionals and the fact that schools can “employ three or four paraprofessionals for the cost of one teacher” (p. 1) will mean that the training challenge will continue to be present and probably will grow. She makes the following suggestions: (a) develop clear job descriptions (older ones are often outdated), (b) train your own staff to train, © match assignments so that experienced teachers are with novice paraprofessionals, (d) attempt to match staff training and experience to specialized duties, (e) cross-train so more than one person knows how to perform specialized tasks, (f) try to avert the problem of counterproductive dependencies, (g) solicit input from paraprofessionals about the potential content of training, (h) establish a regular cycle of training, and (i) train paraprofessionals and teachers together when appropriate. The closes by stating, “select the best candidates possible and then devote energy and funds to equipping them with the tools for the important work they do…” (p. 2).

Reinoehl R. B., & Halle, J. W. (1994). Increasing the assessment probe performance of teacher aides through written prompts. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 272-279. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study found that delivering data cards to three special education teacher aides prompting them to conduct daily social-greeting probes of students with severe disabilities was effective in increasing the level of probing and was accompanied by less variability, higher sustained probing rates, and more equitable probing compared to not using the cards. (Author/JDD)

Riggs C.G. (2001, January/February). Ask the paraprofessionals: What are your training needs? Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(3), 78-83. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This study examined the perceived training needs of school paraprofessionals using a survey of approximately 200 paraprofessionals, analysis of written responses by 150 paraprofessional conference attendees, and interviews with 20 paraprofessionals from several school districts. Respondents expressed a need for training in knowledge of specific disabilities, behavior management, working with other adults, and inclusive practices. (Contains references.) (DB)

Russotti J. & Rona S. (2001). In-service training for teacher assistants and others who work with students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 95 (8), 483-487. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

This article reports on a one-day workshop in New York to provide practical information and training for teaching assistants working in the mainstream classroom setting with students who have visual impairments. The workshop provided information on “myths” versus “facts” of visual impairment, eye conditions, orientation and mobility, technology, and activities of daily living. (Contains nine references.) (DB)

Storey K., Smith, D. J., & Strain, P. S. (1993). Use of classroom assistants and peer-mediated intervention to increase integration in preschool settings. Exceptionality, 4, 1-16. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

The effectiveness of peer-mediated intervention on the social behavior of eight socially withdrawn preschoolers was examined. Intervention conducted by classroom assistants resulted in the withdrawn preschoolers increasing their social interactions with peers during instructional triads and improving their behavior. (Author/JDD)

Steckelberg A.L., & Vasa, S.F. (1998). How paraeducators learn on the web. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30(5), 54-59. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICE

Describes a paraeducator training program that used the World Wide Web (WWW) to provide self-study instruction units that were accessible from local schools. The WWW allowed for increased interaction between paraeducators and instructors, encouraged discussion among trainees, and facilitated communication between the university and local training liaisons. (CR)

Paraeducator Career Ladder Programs

Bernal, C., & Aragon, L. (2004). Critical factors affecting the success of paraprofessionals in the first two years of Career Ladder projects in Colorado. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 205-213.

This article focuses on those factors that led to paraprofessionals’ successful completion of their first year in a postsecondary setting. Specifically, this paper addresses the conceptual framework upon which these programs were developed, takes the reader through a series of steps utilized in recruitment and preparation of paraprofessionals for entry into their postsecondary experience, and discusses the strategies used in assisting paraprofessionals for successful completion of their first year of study in a college setting.

Carrier, K. A., & Cohen, J. A. (2003). Personal and professional success in a bilingual teacher training project. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 1, 50-69. http://www.uc.edu/njrp/pdfs/Carrier.pdf

This article describes factors that helped students succeed in a bilingual career ladder training project. Focus group methodology was used to interview students on their experiences. Results showed that structural factors like centralized advising, caring staff, and cohort groups, as well as, ancillary factors such as an increase in self-esteem, helped students succeed.

Clewell, B. C., & Villegas, A. M. (2001). Absence unexcused: Ending teacher shortages in high-need areas: Evaluating the pathways to teaching careers program. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/Uploadedpdf/310379_AbsenceUnexcused.pdf

This is a recently completed a six year evaluation of the Pathway to Teaching Careers program. This program funded by the DeWitt-Wallace Readers Digest fund trained people from three specific groups; emergency licensed substitutes, Peace Corps volunteers and paraeducators, to become teachers. They found that paraeducators were the most likely to remain in the teaching profession for more than three years and were more likely to work in urban areas upon completion of their training. Given the sometimes-desperate need for teachers in most urban school districts, this finding is a compelling argument for investing in paraeducators.

Dandy, E. (1998). Increasing the number of minority teachers: Tapping the paraprofessional pool. Education and Urban Society, 31(1), 89-103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1477293

A program at Armstrong Atlantic State University designed to increase the number of minority teachers by recruiting paraprofessionals was selected to be one of the national Pathways to Teaching careers programs. The program wanted to address Georgia’s need for minority teachers by training classified school district employees, mostly paraprofessionals. Those selected had exemplary work records, better than average grades and a sincere commitment to teaching. The program provided tuition support for courses leading to a teaching certificate as long as the participants maintained a 2.5 GPA, attended all program-sponsored activities and agreed to work for the school district for at least three years after graduation. Unique features of the program included Friday replacements for participants to attend classes and program events, a GPA monitoring program, connecting the classroom with the community by having participants attend many community and cultural activities and special workshops.

Epanchin, B.C., & Wooley-Brown, C. (1993). A university-school district collaborative project for preparing paraprofessionals to become special educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 16(2), 110-123. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ472692&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ472692

Like many paraeducators who become teachers the participants in this project were working, going to school, and balancing family responsibilities. A standard curriculum was used – based on state requirements, but packaging and delivery were altered to avoid redundancy and irrelevancy. They taught courses in blocks, at night and weekends. Faculty drove 140 miles round trip to accommodate needs of students who did not want to drive. Staffing courses was hard; faculty did not want to continue. The project also used highly skilled teachers as adjunct faculty to co-teach classes. Technology was infused into the program. They also used mentor teachers and ongoing peer support.

Genzuk, M. (1997). Diversifying the Teaching Force: Preparing Paraeducators as Teachers. ERIC Digest #96-2. Washington D.C: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education and American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education. http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-4/force.htm

The current demographic makeup of our student and teaching populations, as well as the projections for the future, show a striking discontinuity between teacher and student diversity (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1994). The nation’s nearly 500,000 paraeducators working in K-12 classrooms embody a promising source of prospective teachers who represent and may be more rooted in the communities they serve. Paraeducators are school employees whose responsibilities are either instructional in nature or who deliver other services to students. They work under the supervision of teachers or other professional personnel who have the ultimate responsibility for educational programs (Pickett, 1994). Paraeducator to teacher programs capitalize on the attributes that paraeducators bring to the program and the program streamlines their pathway into teaching. These programs foster stronger school/university collaboration, improved induction into teaching, and more graduated assumption of teaching roles as knowledge and skills are refined. Studies suggest that paraeducator to teacher program graduates bring a wealth of community and student knowledge to their practice, attributes that are highly regarded in today’s diverse classrooms (Haselkorn & Fideler, 1996).

Genzuk, M., & Baca, R. (1998). The paraeducator-to-teacher pipeline: A five-year retrospective on an innovative teacher preparation program for Latina (os). Education and Urban Society, 31(1), 73-88. http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~genzuk/ParaEdPipeline_genzuk_baca.html

The Center for Multilingual Multicultural Research at the University of Southern California (USC) founded the Latino Teacher Project initially using funds from the Ford Foundation. The primary objective was to increase the number of Latinos entering the teaching profession. Current paraeducators were the focus of the program that provides them with financial, social and academic support during the time that they study to become bilingual teachers.

Genzuk, M., Lavadenz, M., & Krashen, S. (1994). Para-educators: A source for remedying the shortage of teachers for limited English-proficient students. The Journal of Educational Issues for Language Minority Students, 14, 211-222. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ501437&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ501437

This article makes recommendations for the design of career ladder projects designed to train for paraeducators to become teachers of language minority students. The authors point to the need for financial, academic, and personal support for paraeducators who are becoming teachers.

Gordon J.A. (1995, June). Preparation for urban teaching: Post B.A. paraprofessionals. Paper presented to the faculty of the University of Washington. Seattle, WA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 383 652). http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED383652&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=ED383652

The author outlines a paraprofessional career ladder program designed as a partnership between the Seattle Public Schools (SPS) and Western Washington University (WWU). Based on their experiences with this program, the speaker concludes that successful program to train diverse teachers need to include; “clear requirements and responsibilities, fair an equitable treatment of students, giving particular attention to first-generation college students, especially those who have been out of school for several years, faculty who are willing and able to work with urban students, provisions for mentoring students, financial support, and flexibility of class scheduling.”

Gursky, D. (2000). From para to teacher. American Teacher, 84(8), 8. http://newfirstsearch.oclc.org

This brief article discusses the strong match there is between the need for more teachers and the large number of paraprofessionals working in the nations’ schools. While not all paraprofessionals want to become teachers, a large number of would like to enter the profession. A barrier to their entering the profession is financial resource to complete college. School district grow-your-own programs that assist with this financial burden are recommended.

Haselkorn D., & Fideler, E. (1996) Breaking the class ceiling: Paraeducator pathways to teaching. Belmont, MA: Recruiting New Teachers, Inc. http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~genzuk/ParaEdPipeline_genzuk_baca.html

This study of paraeducator to teacher programs concludes that (1) too many children are currently being consigned to dead-end futures; (2) too many teachers who want to do better, don’t have the tools to reach them and teach them; and (3) too many paraeducators who want to do more continue to bump up against a class ceiling. A class ceiling that is denying the nation their contributions at a time when America’s teacher recruitment, development, and diversity challenges require engaging our best minds, our deepest values, our strongest commitments.

Kaplan G. R. (1977). From aide to teacher: The story of the career opportunities program. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 139 798).

This report tells the story of the Career Opportunities Program. In the 1970’s this was the first career ladder program for paraeducators in the United States.

Lau, K. F., Dandy, E. B., & Hoffman, L. (2007). The pathways program: A model for increasing the number of teachers of color. Teacher Education Quarterly, 34(4), 27-40. http://www.teqjournal.org/backvols/2007/34_4/08lauetal.pdf

The Pathways to Teaching Careers Program was a national recruitment effort started in 1989 to bring teachers of color into the teaching profession. This effort was instrumental in forging the investment of some $50 million for a series of grants that included 26 programs in 66 colleges and universities, located in 43 cities in 26 states (the Armstrong Atlantic State University Pathways Program began as a grantee in 1992). The grant was targeted to produce, recruit and prepare more than 3,000 teachers, especially minorities, who would serve more than 100,000 students annually in urban and rural public school systems. Regional technical assistance for program direction in the southern states was provided by the Southern Education Foundation, that has a 125-year record for promoting equity and equality in education. A six-year study yielded a recruitment goal of 2,593 participants and documented an 81% retention rate. The national Pathways Program targeted three groups of school personnel – teacher assistants, substitute teachers, and provisionally certified teachers – all of whom were non-certified public school employees. Programs that participated in this initiative were required to have the following essential features: a consortium structure partnering historically black colleges and universities with traditionally white institutions and school districts, a value-added philosophy that guided recruitment and enhancements to teacher preparation curricula, and a nontraditional talent pool as the target recruitment population. In this article, the authors examine the Armstrong Atlantic State University Pathways to Teaching Program. First, they describe basic features of the program itself, and provide data on its graduates. Then, they report results of a study investigating factors underlying its high rate of retention. (Contains 3 tables and 1 note.)

LeTendre M. J. (1998). Paraprofessionals: A resource for tomorrows’ teachers. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 3 (2), 107-110. http://www.uvm.edu/cdci/?Page=parasupport/chrono.html

Paraprofessionals often have accumulated valuable experience in their schools and communities and have acquired many of the skills needed to work effectively with children. In addition to having substantial classroom experience, research indicates that paraprofessionals enrolled in teacher preparation programs are frequently highly motivated and engaged educators who are interested in teaching in their home communities. Furthermore, the attrition rate of paraprofessionals is low relative to that of other teacher trainees. Several state and local educational agencies have established projects that can be used as examples for others wishing to implement career ladders. Although not all of these examples involve the use of Title I funds, such funds can be used to create similar career ladder programs for Title I instructional aides.

Nittoli J. M., & Giloth, R. P. (1997). New careers revisited: paraprofessional job creation follow-income communities. Social Policy, 28, 44-61. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-20575584.html

Reviews the state of programs today that were designed to help low-income communities increase their economic potential by employing people from their own neighborhoods and provide them training to work in human services positions in their own neighborhoods. The goal was not only to lift low income neighborhoods out of poverty by providing jobs to residents who came from the populations that they served, but to also provide additional education and training that would create career ladders into the professional ranks. Paraeducators career ladder programs are mentioned.

Nunez, M., & Fernandez, M. R. (2006). Collaborative recruitment of diverse teachers for the long haul—TEAMS: Teacher education for the advancement of a multicultural society; innovative practices. Multicultural Education, 14(2), 14. http://www.ctserc.org/library/bibfiles/Paraprofessionals%20November%202006%20-%20September%202007.pdf

The recruitment of qualified teachers is an immense and demanding job, particularly for high-poverty urban schools. Urban schools often turn to the common practice of recruiting teachers who are under qualified, most of them with no teaching experience and limited training. Because of their lack of preparation, coupled with the difficult working conditions they face and the inadequate support within their schools, these beginning teachers are likely to leave the profession soon after they enter. The attrition data is challenging: 33% of beginning teachers leave within the first three years of teaching, and almost 50% leave within five years. The TEAMS (Teacher Education for the Advancement of a Multicultural Society) Teaching Fellowship Program is a collaborative model of positive recruitment that prepares diverse teachers, paraprofessionals, and counselors for service in urban, public school with the goal of increasing the academic success of all students. The TEAMS Program has implemented a unique model that provides a winning situation for all who are involved by using creative partnering to recruit, prepare, and support a confident, critical, and diverse teaching force prepared to tackle the challenges of inner-city teaching for the long haul. The program model rests on the assumption that by providing financial support to acquire a teaching credential, focusing training activities on diversity, multiculturalism, and effective teaching strategies for urban schools, developing a network of like-minded educators, and intentionally targeting communities of color for recruitment, a diverse group of capable teachers committed to a career in public school teaching will emerge. (Contains 2 notes.)

Pearl A., & Reissman, F. (1965). New careers for the poor: The nonprofessional in human service. New York: Free Press. http://www.mcny.edu/library/documents/chickering.html

This book is the original plan for the New Careers Program in the 1960’s and 70’s.

Rintell E. M., & Pierce, M. (2002). Becoming maestra: Latina paraprofessionals as teacher candidates in bilingual education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 466 463).

This paper describes the experiences of Latina paraeducators who were recruited into a career ladder project to become teachers in Salem Massachusetts. Many of these paraeducators were immigrants from Central and South America. They became paraeducators in several ways. The two most common pathways were either parent volunteers who were hired because of their bilingual skills or teachers from other countries who became paraeducators in the U.S. while trying to figure out the system for becoming certified here. The paper discusses how they used their cultural traits to become successful in the teacher education program.

Rueda R. S. & Monzo, L. D. (2000). Apprenticeship for teaching: Professional development issues surrounding the collaborative relationship between teaches and paraeducators. Santa Cruz: University of California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4pz7v5pf#page-1

Paraeducators in this study had one of three working relationships with teachers: Paraeducator as clerical support, Paraeducators as implementer of teacher plans, or Paraeducator as apprentice teacher. This role differentiation influenced the paraeducators desire to go on to become teachers. Those whose roles were more clerical in nature had less interest in becoming teachers than those whose roles were more apprentice like.

Safarik L. (2001). Lives in transition. Utah: National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals. Retrieved from: http://www.nrcpara.org

This article reviews a multi-agency career ladder training program for paraeducators. The personal stories of several participants are shared.

Sandoval-Lucero, E., Maes, J. B., & Chopra, R. (2011). Examining the retention of non-traditional Latina(o) students in a career based learning community.

Learning communities are designed to increase student persistence and academic achievement and are a retention strategy to increase these outcomes for first year college students. This article examines the educational outcomes for a learning community specifically designed for non-traditional Latina(o) students enrolled in a grant funded program to become bilingual teachers. The learning community model was a grant objective. Student evaluations, retention and graduation rates were analyzed to examine the effectiveness of the learning community.

Sandoval-Lucero, E. (2006). Recruiting paraeducators into bilingual teaching roles: The importance of support, supervision, and self-efficacy. Bilingual Research Journal., 30 (1), 195-218. PDF Document

This mixed methods study examined the self-efficacy beliefs of paraeducators who became bilingual teachers and paraeducators who did not to explore the possibility that self-efficacy plays a role in paraeducators’ career decisions. Data were collected through three sources: a survey, career goal statements, and interviews. Fourteen participants were included in the study. There were qualitative differences and significant quantitative differences between the two groups. Those who became bilingual teachers described work environments and duties that promoted the development of their teacher efficacy. Those who remained in the paraeducator roles described very different work environments. The study highlights the importance of clearly defining paraeducators’ roles and responsibilities in ways that utilize their skills, abilities, and interests, and promote their career development.

Sandoval-Lucero, E. & Chopra, R. V. (2010). Paraeducator career ladder cohorts as learning communities. National Teacher Education Journal, 3(2), 1-11.

Paraeducators are an excellent source of new teachers. However, many face academic, social, and financial challenges to completing college and teacher licensure. Cohort learning communities are an effective format for career ladder programs training paraeducators to become teachers. The learning community format offers a supportive learning environment where paraeducators can make connections both inside and outside the classroom that help them successfully navigate the college system to achieve their goal of graduation and teacher licensure.

Valenciana, C., Morin, J. A., & Morales, R.S. (2005). Meeting the challenge: Building university –school district partnership for a successful career ladder program for teachers of English Learners. Action in Teacher Education, 27(1), 10. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ720084&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ720084

This article describes a career ladder program for paraeducators in which collaborative efforts of a university, community college, and consortium of school districts addresses the need for preparing teacher of English-language learners. Thirty paraeducators of minority background were supported through the California Paraprofessional Teacher Training Program, California Commission on Teacher Credentialing. This article focuses on (a) the program goals, (b) participant recruitment and retention, © participant cohort, and (d) program support. The program was built on the concept of a community of learners in which the participant obtained a B.A. degree and a California Multiple Subject (elementary) Bilingual Culture Language Acquisition Development/Culture Language Acquisition Development Credential. This program provided teachers from an underrepresented group to meet the need for credentialed teachers of English learners as well as to diversify the teaching force.

Villegas A. M., & Clewell, B. C. (1998) Increasing the number of teachers of color for urban schools, lessons from the pathways national evaluation. Education and Urban Society, 31(1), 42-61. http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ578768&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ578768

Data reported in this article was collected as part of a five-year evaluation of the Pathways program. The 27 sites in the paraprofessional and emergency-certified teacher strand are the focus of the article. The evaluation was both quantitative and qualitative. The study found that he components of successful programs include: Forging partnerships between the teacher education program and urban school districts; using flexible and varied criteria to select participants; providing a network of academic and social support; modifying the teacher education curriculum; securing tuition assistance.

Villegas A.M., & Clewell, B.C. (1998). Increasing teacher diversity by tapping the paraprofessional pool. Theory Into Practice, 37(2), 121-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1477293

Part of a special issue on preparing teachers for cultural diversity. Paraprofessionals represent a largely untapped pool from which people of color can be recruited and prepared for a teaching career. Increasing the proportion of teachers of color in public schools is necessary so that these teachers can serve as cultural brokers for the growing number of students of color and as role models for all students. In order to serve these paraprofessionals well, teacher education programs must set up partnerships with school districts to plan and implement a career ladder program, use multiple sources of information to select paraprofessionals for such a program, provide academic and social support services, modify the teacher education program, and secure tuition assistance.

Villegas, A.M. & Davis, D. E. (2007). Approaches to diversifying the teaching force: Attending to issues of recruitment, preparation, and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly 24 (4), 137-147. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?nfpb=true&&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ720084&ERICExtSearchSearchType0=no&accno=EJ720084

An epilogue to a special issue on diversification of the teaching force. The writers consider approaches to diversifying the teaching force. They place approaches outlined in the special issue articles in a broader discussion of recruiting, preparing, and retaining prospective teachers of color. They discuss approaches targeting enrolled undergraduate students with undeclared majors, precollege students, community college students, residents of communities of color, and bachelor degree holders. Based on the special issue articles, they draw several conclusions about diversifying the teaching force.++

Wall S., Davis, K. L., Winkler Crowley, A. L., & White, L. L. (2005). The urban paraprofessional goes to college. Remedial and Special Education 26(3), 183-190. http://rse.sagepub.com/content/26/3/183.refs?related-urls=yes&legid=sprse;26/3/183

This article reviews an urban paraeducator training program established between three partners to help paraeducators attend college to meet the NCLB requirements. In the first two cohorts of students who began the program, they learned many important lesions about paraeducators attending college. First, that paraeducators bring many strengths including more closely matching the demographic make of their students. However, they need quite a lot of academic and personal support in order to be successful in college level classes.

White R. (2004). The recruitment of paraeducators into the special education profession: A review of progress, select evaluation outcomes, and new initiatives. Remedial and Special Education 25 (4), 214-218. http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5006659649

This article provides an argument for the recruitment of paraeducators into the special education teaching profession. It provides a rationale for the recruitment of paraeducators and a report on the state-of-the-art of paraeducator career ladder programs in special education.